//  ,/Z;  .  oc 


^  PRINCETON,  N.  J.  ^ 


Presented    by  cj  .    O  .   CD\^ 


BV  4423  .W3  1893 

Wacker,  Emil. 

The  deaconess  calling 


THE  DEACONESS  CALLIN 


tITS  PAST  AND  ITS  PRESENT.f 


—BY— 


EMIL  WACKER 

Bector  of  the  Lutheran  Deaconess  House  at  Flensburg, 


Translated  by 


E.  A.  ENDLICH. 


.  A.  i^^A^* 


i>JiiAil«    MvMt 


-^^^^^^fi^f^*- 


Published   by 

THE  MARY  J.  DREXEL  HOME, 

Philadelphia,  Pa. 


1893. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress  in  the  year  1893  "" 

by 

THE  MARY  J.  DREXEL  HOME,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 


DEDICATED 

— TO — 

JOHN  D.  LANKENAU, 

Tlie  Friend  and  Promoter 
— OF  THE — 

iMOilliS  W0E1  II  A\ 


THE  TRANSLATOR. 


i 

llljj 


"1 

J 


EACONESS  CALLIN  , 

ITS  PAST   AND   ITS  PRESENT. 


CHAPTER  I. 

Origin  and  Katurs  of  the  Ministry  of  Christian  Mercy. 

1.  The  word  diaconate  means  service,  or  ministry.  It  is  used 
to  designate,  not  every  service,  but  only  that  which  is  done  for  the 
Kingdom  of  Heaven,  or  churchly  service.  It  does  not  even  in- 
clude all  of  this.  The  Kingdom  of  Heaven  is  variously  served, 
by  word  and  deed.  Modern  usage  inclines  to  limit  the  word 
"diaconate"  to  the  ministry  of  mercy  in  the  christian  church.  Where 
such  a  ministry  is  committed  to  women,  as  an  especial  life-calling, 
we  speak  of  the  female  Diaconate. 

2.  To  serve,  is  to  use  our  strength  and  ability  for  the  welfare 
of  others.  This  may  be  done  for  life,  or  only  for  a  time  ;  volun- 
tarily or  by  constraint ;  partially  or  entirely.  If  service  is  freely 
given,  it  is  the  exercise  of  a  love,  whose  essence  consists  in  living, 
not  for  ourselves,  but  for  others.  But  genuine  love  is  not  to  be  found 
in  this  world  of  selfishness  and  sin,  and  therefore  no  wholly  genuine 
service  to  God  or  man.  The  paganism  of  all  times  has  held  servi- 
tude in  small  esteem  ;  paganism  being  the  condition  of  the  natural 
man,  who  loves  only  himself,  and  instead  of  serving  others,  strives 
to  make  all  things  serviceable  to  himself.  Service  was  held  to  be 
unworthy  a  free-born  man  ;  and,  as  a  yoke  laid  upon  inferiors,  was 
left  to  women  and  slaves.  Service  has  come  to  honor,  only  upon 
the  ground  of  divine  revelation,  and  especially  upon  that  of  Chris- 
tianity. All  revelation  of  the  Triune  God  is  ministering  love  and 
compassion.  Of  His  judgments  even,  it  is  said  that,  while  the  season 
of  grace  endures  "mercy  rejoiceth  against  judgment."  (St.  James  2, 
13).  The  diaconate  of  divine  grace  and  mercy  began  with  the  fall 
of  man  in  Paradise,  and  is  completed  in  Christ.  He  who,  for  the 
fallen,  made  "coats  of  skin  and  clothed  them/'  He  it  is,  who  in 


Christ  invests  the  penitent  Avith  the  *rarnients  of  salvation  ;  who 
feeds  the  hnnirrv,  and  refreshes  the  thirsty  with  torjjiveness  of  sins, 
with  life  and  salvation.  "God  so  loved  the  world,  that  He  gave 
His  only-begotten  Son."  (St.  John  3,  16).  This  is  a  service 
withont  a  parallel.  '*  The  Son  of  Man  eame  to  seek  and  to  save 
that  whieh  is  lost."  (St.  Matth.  18,  11).  He  is  the  Good  Shep- 
herd —  the  great  deacon.  It  was  He  who  said  :  "  The  Son  of 
Man  eame  not  to  be  ministered  unto,  but  to  minister,  and  to  give 
His  life  a  ransom  for  many."  (St.  Matth.  20,  28).  In  Him  ap- 
peared the  prototype  of  the  holy  diaconate.  Wherever  men  be- 
lieve on  His  Name,  serving  ceases  to  be  despised,  is  rather  loved 
above  all  things.  Those  who  have  been  redeemed  through  His 
ministry  can  nevermore  forget  His  example,  of  which  He  said  :  "I 
have  given  you  an  example,  that  ye  should  do  as  I  have  done  to 
vou."  (St.  John  13,  15).  By  their  works  of  ministering  love 
will  He  one  day  recognize  His  own.  "  Inasmuch  as  ye  have  done 
it  unto  one  of  the  least  of  these  My  brethren,  ye  have  done  it  unto 
Me."  (St.  Matth.  25,  40).  In  His  kingdom,  in  His  church, 
those  are  greatest,  who  serve.  He  says  of  them  :  "If  any  man 
serve  Me,  him  will  My  Father  honor,"  (St.  John  12,  26).  Even 
though  in  this  world  our  path  of  service  lead  us,  as  followers  of 
Christ,  through  crosses  and  humiliations,  inasmuch  as  the  disciple 
is  not  above  his  Master,  yet  in  truth,  it  leads  to  glory  with  Him. 
"  He  rules,"  says  St.  Augustine,  "who  serves  Him." 

3.  Ministering  love  is  not  in  every  case  the  exercise  of  mercy 
concerning  itself  with  the  suffering.  There  is  also  a  ministry  of 
love  for  worship,  for  beauty,  for  honor,  for  adoration.  But  inas- 
much as  the  ministry  of  divine  love  toward  us  sinners  is  essentially 
grace  and  mercy,  so  in  this  world  of  sin  and  misery,  our  ministry, 
as  followers  of  the  Lord,  will  be  chiefly  a  ministry  of  mercy,  the 
very  conception  of  which  was  almost  unknown  to  the  heathen ; 
while  with  it,  Christianity  stands  or  falls.  In  the  Church  of  Christ, 
mercy  must  have  its  home.  The  i^rophetic  word  and  example  of  the 
Saviour  demand  it.  His  own  sacrifice,  as  our  High-Priest,  imparts  the 
needed  strength.  Those  who  have  been  so  dearly  ransomed  by  it, 
must  needs  love  Him,  and  in  Him  all  for  whom  He  has  shed  His 
blood.  Love  becomes  a  new  law  to  them,  —  new,  because  now  it  is 
written  in  their  hearts,  not  by  the  letter  which  killeth,  but  by  life- 
giving  grace.  "  The  love  of  Christ  cdnstraineth  us,"  writes  the 
Apostle,  "because  we  thus  judge,  that  if  One  died  for  all,  then  were 
all  dead  :  And  that  He  died  for  all,  that  they  which  live,  should 
not  henceforth  live  unto  themselves,  but  unto  Him  which  died  for 
them,  and  rose  again."  (2  Cor.  5,  14.  15).  The  merciful  are  ac- 
counted blessed,  because  the  mercy  which  they  show,  is  an  evidence 
that  they  have  obtained  mercy.  The  opposite  is  true  of  the  unmer- 
ciful.   (St.  Matth.  5,  7  ;  St.  James  2,  13). 


4.  The  Christian  Church  must  let  her  light  shine  before  men? 
that  is,  she  owes  it  to  them,  to  testify  by  word  and  deed,  of  the 
mercy  of  God,  their  Saviour.  And  this  testimony  must  be  pre- 
eminently one  of  deeds,  "that  they  may  see  your  good  works,  and 
glorify  your  Father  which  is  in  Heaven."  (St.  Matth.  5,  16). 
Especially  is  the  duty  laid  upon  the  church,  and  the  ability  given 
her,  continually  to  exercise  mercy  toward  her  own  members  ;  for 
those  who  have  become  believers,  "being  many,  are  one  body  in 
Christ,  and  every  one  members  one  of  another."  (Rom  12,  5.) 
"And  whether  one  member  suffer,  all  the  members  suffer  with  it;, 
or  one  member  be  honored,  all  the  members  rejoice  with  it." 
(1  Cor.  12,  26).  In  the  first  christian  congregation,  "all  that  be- 
lieved .  .  .  had  all  things  in  common."  (Acts  2,  44).  The  Chris- 
tian Church,  subject  to  the  Lord,  her  royal  Head,  is  one  body,  "and 
He  is  the  Saviour  of  the  body."  (Eph.  5,  23).  It  is  needful 
then,  that  the  members,  "Speaking  the  truth  in  love,  may  grow  up 
into  Him  in  all  things,  which  is  the  head,  even  Christ :  From 
whom  the  whole  body  fitly  joined  together  and  compacted  by  that 
which  every  joint  supplieth,  according  to  the  effectual  working  in 
the  measure  of  every  part,  maketh  increase  of  the  body  unto  the 
edifying  of  itself  in  love."     (Eph.  4,  15.  16). 

5.  It  follows  then,  that  the  Christian  Church,  in  a  matter 
as  closely  concerning  it,  as  does  the  exercise  of  ministering  love'^ 
must  have  its  fixed  rules.  In  the  eyes  of  the  world,  as  well  as  of 
the  congregation,  it  must  strive  to  render  the  practice  of  mercy  as 
nearly  comjilete  as  possible  ;  and  this  is  accomplished  in  the  same 
proportion  in  which  private  and  public,  free  and  officially  organ- 
ized benevolence  supplement  each  other.  Here  also  the  peculiar 
gifts  of  woman  for  the  ministry  of  mercy  will  find  due  recognition. 
The  Christian  Church,  beside  other  forms  of  the  diaconate,  cannot 
dispense  with  the  female  diaconate,  which  is  an  officially  regulated 
service  of  mercy,  exercised  by  women,  for  Christ's  sake,  among  the- 
poor,  the  sick,  the  wretched  and  the  needy  of  every  description, 
within  and  without  the  congregation.  Only  when  the  Christian 
Church  abandons  the  faith,  can  she  cease  to  strive  after  the  most 
thorough  realization  of  the  apostolic  charge  :  "As  we  have  there- 
fore opportunity,  let  us  do  good  unto  all  men,  especially  unto  them 
who  are  of  the  household  of  faith."     (Gal.  6,  10). 

6.  In  contrast  to  christian  charity  stands  modern  worldly 
philanthropy.  Christianity  alone  has  taught  humanity  to  recognize 
its  oneness,  and  its  common  divine  destiny.  True  humanity  is 
christian.  But,  in  its  estrangement  from  God,  humanity  perverts 
the  knowledge  of  self  to  its  own  heathenish  self-glorification.  It 
apes  christian  mercy,  even  to  its  name  and  dress.  Among  its 
endeavors,  some  are  in  themselves  of  value  ;  while  it  may  be  said 
that  its  opposition  to  religion  is  as  yet  an  unconscious  one.     Yet 


in  its  alienation  from  the  faith,  it  ranks  among  the  strongest  errors 
and  forces  in  the  kingdom  of  Antichrist.  It  is  unac(|uaint('d  with  our 
deepest  misery,  —  sin,  and  where  it  appears  to  hel]),  it  often  works 
harm  instead.  It  is  either  presumptuous  self-love,  or  selfish  good- 
nature proceeding  upon  the  maxim,  that  "one  good  turn  deserves 
another."  Vanity  and  ostentation  are  frequently  the  guiding  powers. 
The  Christian  Church,  in  its  war  against  Antichrist,  dare  not 
suffer  the  contrast  between  its  own  exercise  of  mercy  and  tluit  of 
worldly  philanthropy  to  be  obscured. 

7.  In  the  christian  exercise  of  merciful  love,  the  principle  ob- 
tains, that  "charity  to  the  soul  is  the  soul  of  charity."  It  ignores 
no  form  of  misery,  least  of  all  the  misery  of  sin.  It  distinguishes 
between  the  sinner  and  his  guilt ;  not  allowing  the  latter  to  serve  as 
an  excuse  for  leaving  the  former  without  help  ;  but  realizing  also, 
that  in  order  to  aid  the  sinner,  it  dare  not  excuse  his  sin.  With 
every  benefit  rendered,  it  bears  in  mind  the  "one  thing  needful," 
and  endeavors  to  render  help  for  time  and  eternity.  An  imperfect 
copy  of  its  divine  original,  it  is  alike  humbled  by  this  fact,  and 
stimulated  to  further  effort.  The  fundamental  traits  of  this  diaco- 
nate  of  mercy,  as  recognized  in  the  example  of  Christ,  to  which  it 
strives  to  conform  itself,  are  :  holy  compassion,  humble  obedience 
and  wdlling  self-denial. 

"  For  we  have  not  a  high-priest  which  cannot  be  touched  with 
the  feeling  of  our  infirmities."  (Hebr.  4,  15).  In  holy  compas- 
sion, sparing  the  sinner  but  not  his  sin,  He  pitied  the  people,  and 
recognized  it  as  His  office,  to  save  that  which  was  lost. 

And  "though  He  w^ere  a  Son,  yet  learned  He  obedience  by  the 
things  which  He  suffered."  (Hebr.  5,  8).  He  called  it  His 
"meat,  to  do  the  Will  of  Him  that  sent  me."  In  humble  obedience, 
that  the  Scriptures  might  be  fulfilled.  He  followed  not  a  self- 
chosen  path,  but  the  path,  appointed  by  His  Father,  to  reach 
His  end. 

"  For  the  joy  that  was  before  Him,"  He  "endured  the  cross, 
despising  the  shame."  (Heb.  12,  2).  In  willing  self-denial  He 
gave  Himself  up  to  death,  even  the  death  of  the  cross,  until  the 
time  had  come,  when  He  could  say  :  It  is  finished.  Sanctifying 
Himself  for  us.  He  completed  His  work,  that  we  also  might  be 
"sanctified  through  the  truth."  "  (St.  John  17,  19). 

We  then  should  look  up  to  Jesus,  the  Author  and  Finisher  of 
our  faith.  The  human  Diaconate  must  be  found  walking  in  the 
footsteps  of  the  divine  Diaconate,  if  it  is  not  to  prove  vain,  unprofit- 
able and  w^orthless. 


CHAPTER  II. 

Ths  Churchly  Officers. 

8.  The  Christian  Church  is  built  upon  the  loundation  laid  by 
the  Apostles.  The  ApoHtoJic  Ojfice,  as  the  office  of  the  founders  of 
the  Church,  exists  only  for  the  beginning-,  but  continues  eifective 
in  the  Church,  especially  through  the  testimony  of  the  Scriptures. 
Bound  up  from  the  beginning  with  the  apostolic  office,  was  that 
office  which  is  permanently  needed  for  the  continuance  and 
growth  of  the  Church,  namely  the  office  of  the  ministry.  The 
Church  could  not  have  come  into  existence  without  the  office,  to 
which  in  her  progress  she  is  bound.  The  office  of  the  ministry 
includes  the  administration  of  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper,  the 
office  of  the  keys,  and  the  preaching  of  sound,  christian  doctrine, 
without  which  the  sacraments  and  absolution  cannot  be  understood 
and  spiritually  appropriated.  As  the  Saviour  Himself  instituted 
the  a]30stolic  office,  by  calling  the  Apostles,  by  preparing  them  to 
be  His  disciples,  and  by  sending  them  forth,  as  He  had  been  sent 
by  His  Father, — even  so  the  pastoral  office  rests  upon  His  direct 
commission.  He  has  commanded  His  Church  to  baptize  and  to  cele- 
brate the  Holy  Supper,  until  His  coming ;  He  has  commanded,  to 
bind  and  to  loose ;  and  to  teach  those  who  are  baptized,  to  keep 
His  commandments.  As  regards  other  functions  pertaining  to  the 
pastoral  office,  a  direct  divine  commission  cannot  be  proven. 
Neither  has  any  fixed  order  been  given  by  the  Lord  or  by  His 
Apostles,  for  the  election  of  persons  to  the  office  of  the  ministry. 
No  doubt  it  is  proper  that  those  already  holding  the  office,  should 
confer  it  upon  others.  But  as  to  the  manner  of  doing  it,  and  in 
how  far  the  christian  congregation  shall  participate,  there  may  be 
various  methods,  none  of  which,  over  against  others,  can  lay  claim 
to  perfection.  Xone  can  administer  the  pastoral  office  in  the  Church, 
who  have  not  been  regularly  called. 

9.  In  addition  to  the  office  of  the  ministry,  we  speak  of 
churchly  offices  in  a  wider  sense.  Luther  has  translated  the  word 
"diaconia"  with  "office"  (Amt),  "There  are  differences  of  ad- 
ministrations (offices  or  diaconates)  but  the  same  Lord."  (1,  Cor. 
12,  15.)  The  churchly  diaconates  are  the  practical  exercise  ol 
spiritual  gifts,  incorporated  into  the  congregational  life.  Every 
Christian  possesses  natural  gifts,  which  sanctified  by  the  Holy 


—   10   — 

Spirit,  are  made  servicvaMt'  to  the  kingdom  of  (lod.  Of  these 
spiritual  <rifts — cliarisinata — there  is  a  great  diversity.  St.  Paul, 
in  the  twelfth  chapters,  both  of  Romans  and  First  Corinthians, 
mentions  the  most  important.  To  these  may  be  added  the  gifts  of 
preaching  and  teaching,  tiie  gift  of  deeper  spiritual  knowledge,  the 
gifts  of  administration,  or  rulership  ;  the  gift  of  caring  for  souls  and 
the  discerning  of  s])irits,  tile  gift  of  the  exercise  of  mercy  in  its 
various  branches,  "the  gift  of  healing,"  of  "divers  kinds  of  ton- 
gues", and  others.  The  life  of  the  Christian  Church  unfolds  itself 
abundantly  and  vigorously,  in  proportion  as  a  plenitude  of  spiritual 
gifts  are  operative  within  it.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  Church,  there- 
fore, to  awaken  spiritual  gifts,  to  perfect  and  organize  them  as 
completely  as  possible.  The  offices  or  diaconates  thus  arising  do 
not  rest  upon  the  Lord's  direct  institution,  but  are  developments 
of  the  congregational  life  under  the  guidance  of  the  Holy  Spirit. 
From  the  diversities  in  the  relationship  sustained  by  the  diaconates 
or  ministries,  to  the  one  pre-eminent  office  of  the  ministry,  have 
sprung  the  various  form  of  existing  churchly  offices. 

10.  The  Apostles  combined  in  all  their  fullness  both  the  most 
eminent  spiritual  gifts,  and  the  churchly  offices.  As  the  Church 
increased,  however,  the  Apostles  were  soon  obliged  to  limit  them- 
selves to  the  most  important  of  their  duties.  The  first  office  to 
branch  off  was  a  diaconate.  The  duty  of  distributing  the  alms  and 
of  caring  for  the  poor  became  too  burdensome  for  the  Apostles.  "It 
is  not  reason,  that  we  should  leave  the  Word  of  God  and  serve 
tables."  (Acts  6,  2.)  Thus,  the  laity  co-operating,  seven  men 
w^ere  appointed  to  take  charge  of  these  matters.  They  seem  to  have 
assumed  further  duties,  such  as  preaching  and  teaching.  The  ad- 
ministration of  property  and  the  care  of  the  poor  seem  to  have 
been  the  chief,  but  not  the  only  work  assigned  to  them.  We  hear 
later  on,  that  in  the  churches  the  office  of  elders  or  bishops  again 
became  separated  from  the  apostolic  office  ;  and  their  special  function 
seems  to  have  been  the  administration  of  the  pastoral  office  proper. 
In  addition,  they  had  the  oversight  and  government  of  the  congrega- 
tion, and  the  measure  of  their  administrative  ability  seems  to  have 
decided  their  election.  Still  later,  when  the  churches  grew  more  and 
more  numerous,  an  administrative  office  was  formed,  which  extended 
over  a  plurality  of  churches  ;  this  office  was  again  separated  from 
the  eldership  over  local  congregations.  Thus  arose  a  three-fold 
group  of  churchly  offices,  the  administrative  ojfice,  the  office  of  the 
inimstry,  having  in  its  stricter  sense  the  management  of  the  indivi- 
dual congregation,  and  the  office  of  the  diaconate,  embracing  in  its 
narrower  sense  the  various  duties  of  church-work  and  trust.  Each 
office  takes  its  name  from  the  special  charismatic  gifts  it  demands, 
and  the  authority  it  confers.  The  name  "diaconate"  finally,  re- 
mains only  for  more   subordinate  offices  ;  although  we  emphasize 


—  11  - 

the  fact,  that  administration,  preaching,  and  the  care  of  sonls,  are 
charismatic  activities,  and  therefore  diaconal.  The  bearers  of  the 
office  of  oversight  are  called  bishops,  those.holding  the  office  of  the 
ministry  in  individual  congregations,  are  called  pastors.  Deacons 
also  may  be  entrusted  with  the  ministerial  office.  There  arise 
various  combinations  of  the  diaconates  among  themselves,  and  with 
the  pastoral  office.  The  New  Testament  already  mentions  one  dia- 
conate,  to  which  women  were  appointed. 

11.  Church  jjovernment  has  for  its  object,  that  the  members 
of  the  congregation  shall  enjoy,  in  as  regular  and  thorough  a  man- 
ner as  possible,  the  services  of  the  ministerial  office.  The  diaconate, 
in  its  various  administrations  and  exercises  of  charity,  is  entirely 
subordinate  to  it.  The  office  of  the  ministry  is  and  remains  the 
one,  with  which  the  Church  stands  or  falls.  By  "the  perfecting  of 
the  Saints",  into  a  "work  of  the  ministry"  is  the  "body  of  Christ" 
built  up,  (Eph.  4,  12.)  To  become  a  "work  of  the  ministry" 
means,  to  experience  the  service  of  the  ministry  for  our  soul's  sal- 
vation. 

The  diaconate  in  all  its  branches  has  been  fitly  termed  a  ser- 
vice at  the  doors  of  the  sanctuary.  Within,  the  ministry  of  the 
word  has  its  place.  The  diaconate,  however,  prepares  the  way  for 
its  ministrations,  or  accompanies  it,  guarding  and  assisting  it ; 
gathers  in  the  souls  who  are  to  benefit  by  the  service  of  the  sanc- 
tuary, or  watches  over  the  souls  who  have  experienced  its  benefits, 
that  the  blessing  may  not  be  lost  to  them.  It  is  always  at  the 
threshold  of  the  sanctuary,  that  this  service  awaits  those  who  come 
and  go.  In  truth,  it  may  be  said  of  every  diaconate,  even  though 
furnished  with  the  most  eminent  spiritual  gifts,  that  it  is  nothing 
but  an  auxiliary  office,  co-  and  subordinate  to  the  one  pre-eminent 
office  of  the  ministry. 

12.  The  office  of  the  ministry  cannot  be  administered  without 
some  charismatic  gift.  It  can  therefi)re  be  said  of  the  call  to  all 
churchly  offices,  without  exception,  that  it  can  take  place  only 
where  the  corresponding  qualifications  exist.  To  natural  gifts  must 
be  added  an  adequate  training,  and  an  inward,  spiritual  vocation 
and  preparation.  At  the  same  time  such  outward  conditions  as 
come  into  consideration,  must  be  tested — the  measure  of  talent, 
education  and  experience,  the  confessional  standing,  the  general 
suitability  of  the  candidate,  as  far  as  it  can  be  determined.  The 
inward  and  outward  vocation  culminates  in  the  churchly  ordination 
by  prayer  and  the  imposition  of  hands,  whereby  the  co-operation 
of  the  Holy  Spirit  is  the  more  assured,  the  more  carefully  and 
orderly  all  things  have  been  conducted.  The  Scriptures  speak  of 
a  "gift  of  God",  which  is  imparted  through  ordination  to  a  churchly 
office.  (2.  Tim.  1,  6.)  And  as  this  gift  can  be  "stirred  up",  so 
also  can  it  be  "neglected".     (1.  Tim.  4,  14.)     In  no  case  is  it  ta 


—  12  — 

be  roii::ardo(i  as  something  that  is  outside  of  the  general   conditions 
of  spiritual  life. 

13.  Xot  all  the  charismatic  activities  in  the  Christian  Church 
can  be  systematically  gathered  into  offices.  The  Church  must 
"covet  earnestly  the  best  gifts",  and  above  all  things,  must  endea- 
vor to  work  "in  the  more  excellent  way  of  love."  (1.  Cor.  12,  31.) 
The  more  she  does  this,  the  more  devoutly  will  her  offices  and  or- 
dinances be  loved  and  cherished.  But  there  are  certain  gifts  of 
grace,  of  so  tender  and  private  a  nature,  that  they  are  Avholly  be- 
yond the  scope  of  official  classification  ;  an  attempt  at  which  would 
rob  them  of  their  spirituality.  It  is  enough,  if  we  cite  for  instance 
the  gift  of  healing  the  sick,  or  the  gift  of  especially  strong 
faith  and  spiritual  communication.  But  apart  from  these,  it  is  not 
to  be  imagined,  that  in  this  world  the  charismatic  agencies  will 
ever  be  fully  covered  by  the  existing  offices  within  the  Church. 
Therefore  there  can  be  no  doubt,  that  in  the  churchly  life,  the 
free,  unofficial  exercise  of  spiritanl  gifts  is  (dso  Jegitiinate.  The 
apostle  charges  the  Corinthians  with  regard  to  the  house  of  Ste- 
phanas. The  members  of  this  household  are  "the  first  fruits  of 
Achaia",  and  "have  addicted  themselves  to  the  ministry  of  the 
saints."  To  such,  the  christians  of  Corinth  shall  submit  them- 
selves, "and  to  every  one  that  helpeth  with  us,  and  laboureth." 
(1.  Cor.  16,  15.  16.)  According  to  the  Scriptures,  certain  diaconates 
thus  rightfully  existed,  to  which  Christians,  Avithout  especial  com- 
mission from  the  Church  "addicted  themselves".  These  must  have 
within  themselves  the  love  of  order  and  discipline,  and  of  obedience 
to  the  ministerial  office.  The  less  they  are  bound  by  any  outward 
tie,  the  more  must  they  in  their  confession  and  works  of  faith,  bind 
themselves  inwardly.  Otherwise  the  fall  under  the  condemnation, 
"  He  that  is  not  with  Me,  is  against  Me :  and  he  that  gathereth  not 
with  Me,  scattereth."  (St.  Luke,  11,  23.)  It  is  a  feature  of  true 
churchly  order,  that  while  it  permits  freedom  of  charismatic  activity, 
it  excludes  all  confusion  and  caprice. 


CHAPTER  III. 

The  office  of  the  Deaconess^  according  to  the  Scriptures* 

14.  The  Apostle  Paul  writes,  that  women  shall  "keep  silence 
in  the  churches".  Thev  are  to  "learn  in  silence  with  all  subjec- 
tion". (1.  Cor.  14,  34.  35;  1.  Tim.  2,  11.  12.)  Anything  else 
would  not  accord  with  the  relation  of  the  sexes,  as  ordained  by  God, 
nor  with  the  position  becoming  to  woman.  She  is  therefore  de- 
barred from  rulership  within  the  Church,  from  public  preaching 
and  teaching,  from  the  ministry  in  its  stricter  sense,  and  from  all 
branches  of  the  diaconate  which  might  bear  any  unwomanly 
features.  For  the  rest,  the  Scriptures  contain  numerous  testimonies 
in  justification  of  woman's  right  to  serve  the  Kingdom  of  God, 
voluntarily  or  in  an  official  capacity. 

15.  Old  Testament  types  of  an  organized  official  service  of 
women  in  the  sanctuary,  are  those  who  "assembled  at  the  door  of 
the  tabernacle  of  the  congregation".  (Ex.  38,  1  ;  1  Sam.  2, 
22.).  The  care  of  the  tabernacle,  and  the  sacrificial  rites  per- 
formed there,  gave  sufficient  reason  for  such  service.  These  women 
seem  to  have  been  unmarried.  When  Jephtha's  daughter  was  offered 
by  her  father  as  a  sacrifice  to  the  Lord,  it  probably  means  nothing 
else,  than  her  consecration  to  such  celibate  service  in  the  sanctuary. 
(Judges  11,  38.  39.)  The  "singing  women",  who  are  mentioned, 
(2  Chron.  35,  25 ;  Esra  2,  (35 ;  Neh.  7,  67  ;)  were  probably  also 
permanently  employed  in  the  sanctuary.  Undoubtedly  the  Old 
Testament  was  acquainted  with  what  we  would  term  an  organized 
churchly  service  of  women. — Apart  from  their  official  character,  the 
Old  Testament  prototypes  of  the  Deaconesses  are  those  prophetic 
women,  in  whom  woman's  most  important  spiritual  gifts  for  the 
service  in  the  kingdom  of  Heaven  appear  to  us  to  be  embodied. 
They  are  the  four  :  Miriam,  Deborah,  Hannah  and  Huldah.  (Ex. 
15;  Judges  4 ;  1  Sam.  1  ;  2  Kings  22)  They  prove  that  the 
Lord,  in  individual  as  well  as  in  general  cases,  equips  women 
with  gifts  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  needful  for  the  service  of  His 
Kingdom. 

16.  New  Testament  types  of  Deaconesses  are  the  women  who 
ministered  to  the  Lord  during  His  life  upon  earth.  Pre-eminent 
among  them  all  \s  3Iary,  "blessed  among  women",  Avho  served  Him, 
as  did  no  other.     She  is  the  mother,  whose  soul  was  pierced  by  the 


—  u  — 

sword.  As  such,  she  i?«  the  exalted  examj)le  of  that  .^^piritiial  dying, 
bv  which  all  natural  gifts,  all  human  relationship  to  Jesus  must 
needs  be  broken  asunder  and  transi'ormed,  before  they  can  acquire 
spiritual  value.  In  the  Sisters  Mary  and  Marf/ia,  of  ]^ethany,  is 
reflected  for  all  time  the  relation  our  service  to  Jesus  nni.st 
bear  to  His  service  to  us,  which  is  "the  one  thing  needful". 
The  Gospels  mention  furtiiermore :  Mari/,  the  mother  of  James 
and  Joses  ;  Salome,  the  mother  of  Zebcdee's  children  ;  Mary  Mag- 
dalene, Joanna,  the  wife  of  Chusa,  and  Stisanmi.  Of  Mary  Mag- 
dalene, Joanna  and  Susanna,  and  of  many  other  women,  it  is  said 
that  "they  ministered  unto  Him  of  their  substance".  (St.  Luke 
8,  3.)  These  believing  women  followed  Jesus.  Of  some  we 
hear,  that  they  stood  beneath  His  Cross,  and  that  they  went  to  the 
sepulchre,  to  anoint  His  body.  They  were  of  widely  different  so- 
cial positions,  and  were  indebted  to  Him  for  the  peace  of  their 
souls.  But  as  in  Him  the  had  found  the  fulfdmentof  Israel's  hope, 
so  they  doubtless  had  a  dawning  consciousness,  that  through  Him 
the  temporal  and  social  condition  of  Avoman  was  to  be  changed  and 
improved.  Throughout  the  Orient,  and  in  a  measure  throughout 
heathendom,  woman  is  regarded  as  a  slave  and  a  chattel.  Even 
in  Israel,  woman's  lot  was  by  no  means  "what  C'hristianity  has  esiuc 
then  made  it.  This  is  proved  by  the  statutes  of  the  Hebrews  with 
regard  to  divorce.  How  fully,  on  the  other  hand,  did  our  Lord 
recognize  the  sacredness  of  marriage.  (Matth  5,  31.  32.)  How 
deeply  he  appreciated  the  honor  of  womanhood.  (St.  Matth.  5,  20.) 
His  word,  and  the  corresponding  apostolic  testimony  (Gal.  3,  28  ; 
Eph.  2,  25 — 30)  have  defined  the  position  of  christian  womanhood, 
which  justifies  our  saying,  that  in  an  especial  sense  He  became  the 
Savior  of  woman.  Thus  the  believing  women  ot  the  Gospels 
rendered  to  Him,  the  Head,  that  service  which  all  christian  women, 
realizing  their  special  debt  of  gratitude,  should  henceforward  feel 
impelled  to  render  His  members. 

17.  More  than  a  mere  prototype  of  the  Deaconess  is  Tabitha. 
(Acts,  9,  3(3.)  The  name  signifies  "a  gazelle",  and  in  accordance 
with  her  name,  she  was  swift  in  well-doing  in  the  Church,  "full  of 
good  works  and  almsdeeds  which  she  did."  Although  not  regu- 
larly holding  the  office  of  a  Deaconess,  she  yet,  in  her  voluntary 
devotion,  seems  to  have  filled  the  position  entirely.  When  she 
died,  the  poor  and  the  widows  of  Joppa  were  her  chief  mourners. 
From  this  circumstance  we  may  conclude  that  she  was  unmarried. 
That,  having  died  in  Christ,  she  was  raised  from  the  dead  by  the 
Apostle  Peter,  is  only  explained,  when  we  recognize  in  the  miracle 
a  direct  testimony  from  the  Lord,  as  to  the  value  He  attached  to 
such  womanly  ministry  for  the  Church.  That  such  special  testi- 
mony was  needed,  is  clear  trom  the  difficulty  existing  in  the  Christian 


—  15  — 

Church,  regarding  the  regulation  of  woman's  service  in  tlie  Church, 
exercised  as  an  exckisive  life-calling. 

18.  A  regular  office  of  the  diaconate  of  women  is  indubit- 
ably mentioned  in  Romans  16,  1.  2.  Phoebe  was  "deacon" 
or  servant  of  the  church  at  Cenchrea,  the  port  of  Corinth.  The 
Apostel  calls  her  "sister".  This  mode  of  address  presupposes,  and 
arises  from  their  christian  unity  of  faith,  a  fact  frequently  for- 
gotten, in  our  day.  Phoebe's  service  in  the  Church  consisted  in 
being  a  "succourer  of  many",  doubtless  in  bodily  as  well  as  in 
spiritual  needs.  The  Apostle  himself  enjoyed  her  ministrations, 
whether  in  weakness  or  sickness,  or  as  a  fellow-^vorker  in  the  sav- 
ing of  the  souls,  cannot  be  determined, — it  may  have  been  both. 
Phoebe  was  probably  the  bearer  of  the  epistle  to  the  Church  at 
Rome,  an  office  with  which,  in  the  perilous  times  of  the  early 
Church,  believing  women  were  on  other  occasions  honored.  The 
apostle's  reciommendation  of  Phoebe  is  to  us  of  general  and  special 
value  for  the  cause  of  the  female  diaconate  ;  first,  as  an  apostolic 
iexihnony  to  the  existence  of  a  deaconess  office  at  that  early  time  ; 
and  secondly,  as  an  apostolic  recommendation,  which  enjoins  upon 
the  Church  of  all  times,  to  receive  Deaconesses  "in  the  Lord,  as 
becometh  saints",  and  to  assist  them  in  whatsoever  business  they  have 
need  of  the  Church.  The  name  Phoebe — "the  sunny  one" — is  a 
beautiful  reminder,  of  how  the  image  of  Christ,  our  sun,  is  to  be 
reflected  in  the  humble  ministry  of  this  handmaidens. 

19.  The  New  Testament  tells  of  Lydia  "a  seller  of  purple" 
who,  from  the  time  of  her  conversion,  began  to  serve  the  Lord 
among  His  poor  (Acts  16,  15).  The  deacon  and  evangelist 
Philip,  "one  of  the  seven,"  (Acts  6)  had  four  daughters,  who  lived 
unmarried  and  possessed  the  gift  of  prophecy,  no  doubt  that  of 
inspired  testimony.  (Acts  21,  8.  9.)  Of  Priscilla,  the  wife  ot 
Aquila,  (Acts  18,"  1—3.  24.  26  ;  Rom.  16,  3  ;  1  Cor.  16,  19)  it  is 
related  that  she  with  her  husband  ministered  to  St.  Paul,  as  well 
as  to  individual  christians  in  the  Church.  The  Apostle  calls  them 
both  his  fellow-workers.  Their  service  was  given  in  voluntary, 
but  continued  devotion,  not  only  of  their  persons  and  strength,  but 
also  of  their  home  and  substance.  St.  Paul,  in  his  Epistles  mentions 
a  succession  of  believing  women,  of  some  of  whom  he  says  that 
they  "laboured  much  in  the  Lord",  (Rom.  16,  12)  as  Tryphena, 
Tryphosa  and  Persis.  Thus  also  Euodias  and  Syntyche  (Phil.  4, 
2.  3).  who  laboured  with  the  Apostle  in  spreading  the  Gospel. 
Besides  these,  Julia  and  Olympas  are  mentioned,  the  sisters  of 
Nereus.  (Rom.  16,  15.)  Of  some  of  these  women  it  is  certain,  that 
their  service  in  the  Church  was  generally  known  and  recognized. 
Whether  some  of  the  women  mentioned  in  the  Epistles  held  an 
office  similar  to  Phoebe's,  \ye  cannot  say.  It  is  not  alltogether  im- 
probable.    At  all  events,  these  names  are  a  weighty   evidence  for 


—  1«  — 

tlie  intense  need  felt  in  the  Church  of  female  co-operation.  It  is 
easy  to  understand,  that  many  a  g:erm  and  beginning  of  woman's 
churchly  ministry,  either  preceded  or  coincided  with  the  nascent 
organization  of  official  service. 

20.  The  passages  in  the  Epistles  of  St.  Paul  to  Timothy  and 
Titus  referring  to  the  election  of  widows  are  also  of  great  im- 
portance. (1  Tim.  5,  9.10;  Titus,  2,  :^>— 5.)  The  widows  in 
question  were  probably  supported  by  the  Church,  and  held  a  posi- 
tion of  honor  in  the  congregation.  At  the  same  time,  they  were 
obliged  to  take  upon  themselves  certain  labors  and  duties  in  the 
congregation,  such  as  the  instruction  of  the  younger  women  in  the 
christian  faith,  assistance  at  baptism  and  in  the  worship  of  the 
congregation,  the  care  of  the  sick,  and  so  forth.  All  such  service 
was  a  necessary  requirement  of  the  church-life  of  that  time.  The 
position  and  the  service  of  the  Avidows  explain  the  strict  directions 
regarding  their  election.  They  must  not  be  under  sixty  years  of 
age,  "having  been  the  wife  of  one  man,"  "well  reported,"  as  women 
and  as  christians,  in  practical  and  spiritual  matters.  In  the  election 
of  widows,  the  questions  to  be  considered  as  to  the  essential  re- 
quirements of  the  office  of  Deaconesses,  seem  to  have  first  been 
generally  formulated  in  the  Church.  The  office  of  widows  was 
the  form  most  readily  available  for  such  a  churchly  service,  as  that 
with  which  Phoebe,  although  not  a  widow,  was  specially  entrusted. 

21.  In  reviewing  what  has  been  said  above,  we  find  in  the 
Old  and  New  Testament  : 

a)  Numerous  types  of  the  diaconate  of  woman,  which  abun- 
dantly express  the  inner  nature  of  the  matter. 

6)  Various  germs  and  beginnings  of  a  female  ministry  in  the 
Church,  from  which  its  need,  generally  felt  and,  confirmed  by  the 
Lord,  is  made  evident. 

c)  In  a  single  case,  the  definite,  apostolically  recognized  ex- 
ample of  an  organized  deaconess  office. 

d)  The  rudiments  of  a  form,  in  which  the  institution  might 
easily  and  simply  find  general  entrance  into  the  Church, — namely 
the  election  of  widows. 

This  is  an  important  chain  of  evidences  The  deaconess  cause 
is  securely  established  upon  the  sure  foundation  of  God's  Word. 
Therefore  those  who  labor  in  it,  may  well  have  an  easy  and  cheer- 
ful conscience. 

"The  Work  is  Thine.  Lord  Jesus  Christ, 
The  work  in  which  we  stand." 

22.  The  Scriptures  likewise  give  us  ample  directions,  as  to  the 
requirements  to  be  made  of  persons  who  are  to  serve  in  the 
Church  as  Deaconesses.     They  are  in  the  first  instance,  the  same 


—  17  — 

as  apply  to  deacons.  (Acts  6,  3.)     Persons  who  are  to  be  ordained 
to  the  diaconate,  must  be 

«)  of  honest  report, 

b)  full  of  the  Holy  Ghost, 

c)  full  of  wisdom. 

The  first  of  these  conditions  demands  that  repenta,nt  sinners, 
if  they  have  publicly  suffered  a  loss  of  reputation,  are  yet,  notwith- 
standing their  repentance,  excluded  from  the  churchly  offices.  The 
second  condition  requires,  that  deacons  be  tried  christians,  expe- 
rienced in  spiritual  matters.  The  measure  of  spiritual  experience 
varies.  One  who  lives  spiritually,  will  have  experience.  Finally, 
the  deacons  mast  be  practically  gifted  and  competent,  possessing 
insight  and  capability,  each  one  for  the  office,  to  which  he  is  ap- 
pointed. More  detailed  directions  are  given  in  1  Tim.  3,  8 — 10. 
They  must  "be  grave,  not  double-tongued,  not  given  to  much  wine, 
not  greedy  of  filthy  lucre."  Holding  the  mystery  of  the  faith 
in  a  pure  conscience,  they  must  strive  to  walk  honestly  and 
uprightly,  according  to  the  christian  faith  and  confession.  Their 
wives  must  equally  enjoy  the  good  report  of  a  faithful  christian 
life.  In  order  that  it  may  be  ascertained,  whether  the  men  to  be 
set  apart  for  the  office  of  deacons,  fulfil  these  requirements,  they 
must  first  undergo  a  term  of  probation. 

23.  In  the  requirements  made  of  the  Deaconesses  by  the 
Church,  there  is  added  to  the  three  chief  conditions  of  a  blameless 
reputation,  a  living  christian  experience,  and  practical  skill,  a  fourth 
— the  unmarried  state.  Deaconesses  must  be  either  single  women  or 
widows.  This  is  necessitated  by  the  nature  of  the  work.  A  married 
woman,  whose  duties  lie  in  her  home,  cannot  hold  besides  a  regular 
office  in  the  Church.  It  may  even  under  certain  circumstances, 
be  advisable  for  a  man  who  is  a  servant  of  the  Church,  to  renounce 
marriage.  (1  Cor.  7,  7.  8.  28.)  "But  every  man  has  his  proper 
gift  of  God,  one  after  this  manner,  and  another  after  that."  As  a 
rule,  and  in  peaceful  times,  a  man  is  not  bound  through  marriage, 
but  made  freer  for  the  Lord's  service.  On  the  other  hand,  if  a 
woman  is  to  serve  the  Lord,  constantly  and  uninterruptedly,  in  a 
churchly  office  and  calling,  her  single  life  must  under  all  circum- 
stances be  taken  for  granted.  (1  Cor.  7,  34.  35.)  Of  this,  the 
apostolic  ordinance  of  the  election  of  widows  is  a  confirmation. 

24.  If  we  review  the  passages  of  Scripture,  which  more  or  less 
bear  upon  the  deaconess  calling,  the  same  chain  of  services  and 
labors  of  love,  as  those  which  in  our  day  constitute  the  duties 
of  a  Deaconess,  may  easily  be  deduced  from  them.  To  be  sure, 
circumstances  in  the  early  Church  differed  greatly  from  those  of 
the  present  time  ;  and  the  work  is  determined  by  the  circum- 
stances. In  the  early  Church,  other  duties  no  doubt  occupied  the 
foreground.     To  the  Deaconesses  was  permitted  a  catechetical   of- 


—  16  — 

fico  in  the  Cluirch,  while  the  honiiletical  offiee  was  closed  to  them. 
Tiieir  eatcehetical  service  was  exercised  especially  in  bchalt' of  those 
women  who  desired  to  become  Christians.  Instruction  and  educa- 
tion seem  then  to  have  held  the  foremost  place, — that  wliich  in  our 
day  belonijs  to  the  care  of  the  sick  and  the  j)oi»r.  \\^hatsoever 
claims  the  rioht  of  existence  as  a  province  (»f  the  female  diaconate, 
must  at  all  times  and  in  some  manner,  establish  its  validity  on  the 
ground  of  the  Holy  Scriptures.  And  especially  will  tlie  womanly 
service,  once  rendered  to  the  Head  of  the  Church,  evermoi'e  remain 
the  standard  for  all  service  toward  its  members. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

Deaconesses  of  the  Early  Church. 

25.  Our  knowledge  regarding  the  conditions  and  circumstances 
of  the  early  Church  is  very  scant.  During  the  first  centuries  the 
Church,  under  the  pressure  of  persecution,  wa  .  forced  to  exist  in 
great  seclusion;  and  this  fact  satisfactorily  explains,  why  such 
written  records  as  have  been  preserved,  fail  to  give  us  a  clear 
picture  of  its  life.  It  is  undoubted,  however,  that  the  need  o 
a  definite  form  of  woman's  churchly  ministry  early  asserted  it  elf; 
and  in  accordance  with  the  need,  the  institution  took  shape.  The 
period  between  the  middle  of  the  first  and  that  of  the  second 
centuries  probably  solved  whatever  difficulties  existed  with  regard 
to  it.  The  origin  of  the  ancient  prayer  of  consecration  of  deaco- 
nesses, handed  down  to  us,  seems  to  belong  to  this  time.  As  to 
the  tradition,  which  ascribes  it  to  the  Apostle  Bartholomew,  there 
is  no  certainty.  The  purport  of  the  prayer  is  a  refutation  of  the 
objections  and  hesitations,  which  evidently  were  generally  attached 
to  the  order  of  a  churchly  ministry  of  women.  The  manner  in 
which  the  prayer  solves  these  doubts,  points  to  a  very  early  period. 
They  raised  the  question,  whether  such  an  organized  ministry 
of  women  were  not  in  opposition  to  the  custom  most  carefully 
observed  in  the  early  Church,  of  strictly  maintaining  for  each 
sex  the  position  assigned  it  by  God.  The  pagans  had  their 
priestesses.  This  the  Christian  Church  justly  regarded  as  sinful 
and  unnatural.  Tertullian  and  Epiphanius  censure  those  heretics, 
who  misconstrue  the  saying  of  the  Apostles,  that  in  Christ  there  is 
"neither  male  nor  female" ;  who  permit  women  to  teach  publicly 
in  their  churches,  even  investing  them  with  the  office  of  bishop  or 
presbyter.  Their  censure  throws  a  light  upon  the  early  times.  The 
ancient  prayer  overcomes  any  objections,  which  may  arise  against  the 
ecclesiastical  ordination  of  women,  by  its  references  to  the  creation 
of  man  and  woman  ;  to  the  women  ot  the  Old  Testament,  who 
served  at  the  doors  of  the  tabernacle,  or  were  prepared  by  the  Holy 
Spirit  for  special  duties  ;  and  to  Mary,  the  Mother  of  ur  Lord. 
Were  the  prayer  not  of  so  early  a  date,  a  reference  to  the  apostolic 
times,  to  Tabitha,  to  the  writings  of  the  Apostles,  would  not  be 
wanting.  But  its  origin  seems  to  lie  so  near  to  the  apostolic  age, 
that  the  movements  then  taking  place  within  the  Church,  may  be 
considered  as  contemporaneous.     We  therefore  venture  to  conclude 


—  20    — 

that  this  prayer  affords  us  a  glimpse  into  the   very   beginnings  of 
the  deaconess  office  in  tlie  early  Church. 

26.  As  regards  the  meagre  historical  information  we  possess 
upon  the  matter,  it  coincides  closely  with  what  we  learn  from  the 
apostolic  writings.  We  see  that  the  existing  need  of  woman's  ser- 
vice within  the  Church,  Avas  at  first  remedied  by  the  election  of 
Avidows.  The  Christian  writers  of  the  second  and  third  centuries, 
Polycarp,  Ignatius,  Tertullian,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  Origen, — 
all  make  mention  of  the  widows,  who  are  designated  as  such,  or  as 
"elders",  "superiors,"  or  "sisters".  They  were  elected,  installed  in 
their  office,  ranked  among  the  clergy,  held  a  position  of  honor  in 
the  congregation,  and  received  their  support  from  it.  Very  re- 
markable is  their  designation  as  an  "altar  of  God",  upon  M'hich 
gifts  are  offered,  and  from  Avhich  the  sacrifice  of  prayer  ascends  on 
high.  They  were  to  have  reached  the  age  of  sixty  years.  Later 
on,  younger  women  were  elected.  Their  office  of  honor  in  presid- 
ing over  the  congregation  of  women,  made  their  greater  age  a  ne- 
cessary condition.  On  the  other  hand,  the  work,  among  prisoners, 
in  teaching,  in  the  service  of  the  bishop,  called  for  younger  women. 
The  lowest  age,  at  which  widows  were  eligible,  seems  to  have  been 
forty  years.  Tertullian  relates,  as  an  instance  of  absurdity,  that  a 
M'Oman  of  twenty  had  been  received  among  the  widows.  As  the 
requirements  of  the  work  became  greater,  the  conditions  originally 
laid  down  by  the  Apostles  for  the  election  of  widows  gradually 
receded.  Not  only  were  actual  widows  chosen,  as  in  the  olden  time, 
women  who  had  been  married  and  had  reared  children,  but 
also  titular  widows — or  virgins.  Ignatius  sends  greetings  to  the 
virgins  who  were  termed  widows.  Although  in  the  election  of 
widows,  woman's  ministry  w^ithin  the  Church  was  not  the  only  ob- 
ject, yet  this  of  itself  became  more  and  more  prominent.  In  addi- 
tion, a  class  of  women  was  gradually  developed,  who  led  a  pre- 
eminently contemplative  life.  The  class  of  widows  disappears,  and 
in  its  place  we  find,  on  the  one  hand  the  order  of  Deaconesses,  and 
on  the  other,  the  first  beginnings  of  conventual  life. 

27.  But  in  the  earlier  times  there  were  not  wanting  followers 
of  Phoebe  in  the  distinctive  calling  of  the  Deaconess.  As  in 
Cenchrea,  so  elsewhere,  a  direct  ordination  of  Deaconesses,  uncon- 
nected with  the  election  of  widows,  was  found  advisable.  This  is 
easily  understood  ;  and  an  isolated  instance,  dating  from  the  earliest 
time,  is  recorded.  The  prefect  of  the  Emperor  Trajan,  Pliny  the 
Younger,  persecuted  the  Christians  of  Bithynia  in  Asia  Minor. 
Pliny  wrote  to  the  Emperor  with  regard  to  these  Christians,  and 
his  letter  has  been  preserved  to  us.  In  it  he  relates  what  they 
had  confessed  to  him  concerning  their  faith  and  worship.  Pliny 
writes  further,  that  in  order  to  learn  the  whole  truth,  he  had 
deemed    it    necessary   to  put  to  the  torture  tico   maids,    whom  the 


-  21  — 

Christians  called  servants,  that  is  Deaconesses.  "I  could  not  ex- 
tort anything  from  them,"  he  adds,  "beyond  a  very  perverted  and 
boundless  superstition  "  He  therefore  suspended  his  examinations 
and  submitted  the  matter  to  the  Emperor.  These  statements  of  an 
imperial  officer  show  that  soon  after  the  year  100  A.  D.,  Deaco- 
nesses were  found  in  the  Churches  of  Asia  Minor,  and  that  their 
service  was  bound  up  with  the  religious  life  of  the  congregation. 
Outwardly  their  position  was  a  lowly  one.  Pliny  styles  them  maid- 
servants (ministrae).  Even  when  put  to  the  tortures  of  the  rack 
they  remained  faithful  to  their  Christian  profession. 

Whether  the  churchly  ministry  of  women  was  exercised  by 
widows  called  in  this  capacity,  or  by  Deaconesses  especially  ordained 
to  the  office,  is  not  in  itself  of  great  importance.  In  the  apostolic 
age  as  well,  as  later  on,  both  forms  were  found,  even  the  same 
names  seem  often  to  have  been  used  for  both,  Deaconesses  beino- 
spoken  of  as  widows,  and  widows  as  Deaconesses.  The  institution 
attained  its  growth  in  obscurity,  until  we  find  that  form  predomi- 
nant, in  which  the  churchly  office  of  the  Deaconess  has  its  distinct 
and  independent  position. 

28.  The  book  which'gives  us  the  most  complete  information  re- 
garding the  Deaconesses  of  the  early  Church,  is  the  so-called  "Apo- 
stolic Constitutions",  a  collection  of  ecclesiastical  instructions,  which 
were  gradually  formulated  in  the  Greek-Oriental  Church,  and  were 
collected  about  the  fourth  century.  Their  contents  as  a  whole, 
have  no  claim  to  apostolic  origin,  and  their  ecclesiastical  value  is 
contested,  but  their  description  of  the  congregational  life  is  clear 
and  trustworthy.  They  state  that  about  the  year  300  A.  D.,  widows 
and  virgins,  living  a  life  of  self-renunciation,  were  commended, 
as  consecrated  to  God,  to  the  benevolence  of  the  Church.  But  they 
no  longer  held  a  position  of  honor,  as  Superiors  in  the  Church, 
nor  any  churchly  office.  On  the  other  hand,  the  various  official  ac- 
tivities of  the  Deaconesses  are  frequently  mentioned;  and  their  impor- 
tance for  the  Church  strongly  insisted  upon.  From  the  Apostolic 
Constitutions  and  other  contemporary  and  later  writings,  are  gather- 
ed the  features,  which  complete  the  picture  of  the  Deaconess  ot  the 
early  Church. 

29.  The  official  functions  of  the  Deaconesses  of  the  early 
Church  were  essentially  as  follows  : 

a)  The  Deaconesses  were  the  doorkeepers  at  the  women's  en- 
trances to  the  churches.  This  service  seems  to  date  back  to  the 
earliest  times.  Ignatius  suffered  martyrdom  early  in  the  second 
century.  In  a  letter  bearing  his  name,  he  writes  :  "I  greet  the 
keepers  of  the  holy  doors,  the  Deaconesses,  who  are  in  the  Lord." 
It  was  necessary,  not  only  in  seasons  of  danger  and  persecution, 
but  also  for  reasons  of  order  and  discipline,  to  guard  the  entrance 


—  22  — 

to  the  asseni blades  of  the  Christian  Church.  Tlio  entraiu-cs  fur  men 
had  their  doorkeepers  also. 

b)  The  T><(ico)i<'f<8<'f<  assif/iicd  to  the  irornen  their  phieen  at  wor- 
ship. If  feinaU' members  of  the  congregation,  who  were  poor  or 
strangers,  came  to  the  church,  the  Deaconess  "was  'Svith  all  her 
lieart,"  to  find  jilaces  for  them,  as  the  deacons  did  for  tiie  men. 
The  Deaconesses  seem  also  to  iiave  held  a  sort  of  presiding  office 
in  the  women's  assembly.  In  the  catacombs  certain  seats  are 
shown,  which  it  is  supposed,  were  appropriated  to  the  Deaco- 
nesses. AYlien  it  became  more  and  more  the  custom  for  widows  and 
virgins  to  take  the  veil,  that  is,  in  self-imposed  celibacy  to  lead 
a  life  of  contemplation,  the  Deaconesses  had  the  oversight  of 
these  women,  and  were  responsible  to  the  bishop  for  their  proper 
behavior. 

c)  A  ministry  of  the  Deaconesses  at  the  Altar  cannot  be  posi- 
tively proven.  Yet  as  early  as  the  second  century  a  Roman  bishop, 
Soterus,  issued  a  decretal  against  the  encroachments  of  women 
in  this  province.  A  ministry  of  Deaconesses  at  the  Altar  can 
only  then  be  justified,  when  it  confines  itself  solely  to  external 
matters,  to  the  care  and  cleansing  of  the  vessels,  vestments  and 
surroundings.  The  complaints  referred  to  were  no  doubt  caused 
by  an  actual  excess  of  zeal,  although  views  not  compatible  with 
evangelical  simplicity  and  truth,  gradually  gained  currency  also 
with  regard  to  the  pastoral  office. 

d)  As  at  the  Altar,  so  at  the  Sacrament  of  Baptism  the  service 
of  the  Deaconesses  must  needs  confine  itself  to  externals.  But 
there  was  obvious  need  of  such  service,  when  adult  women  were 
baptized.  Baptism  was  usually  performed  by  immersion  in  the 
baptismal  basin,  and  after  disrobing,  the  candidates  were  anointed 
on  the  forehead,  eyes,  breast,  shoulders,  back,  hands  and  feet.  When 
women  were  baptized,  the  deacon  anointed  the  forehead  only  ;  the 
rest  was  done  by  the  Deaconess.  It  was  she  who  placed  a  garment 
upon  the  one  to  be  baptized,  assisted  in  the  baptism,  and  saw  to  it, 
that  all  was  done  with  propriety  and  decency. 

e)  The  service  of  the  Deaconesses  was  also  very  necessary  in 
the  instruction- of  the  femcde  catechumens,  and  in  the  capacity  of 
missionaries  in  the  women's  apartments,  to  which  men  were  not 
admitted.  The  ability  to  teach,  in  a  judicious  and  proper  manner, 
was  a  chief  requisite  in  a  deaconess  of  the  early  Church.  It  often 
occurred,  as  in  the  case  of  the  parents  of  the  martyr  Perpetua, 
that  while  the  husband  remained  a  heathen,  his  wife  and  children 
turned  to  the  Christian  faith. 

/)  It  was  the  duty  of  the  Deaconesses,  to  be  present  at  the  pa- 
sioral  conferences  between  the  pastor  and  his  female  members.  As 
the  Holy  Spirit  is  the  mediator  between  Christ  and  the  Church,  say 


—  23  — 

the  Apostolic  Constitutions,  so  is  the  Deaconess  the  mediator  bet- 
ween the  bishop  and  the  christian  women. 

g)  In  seasons  of  per.sccution  the  Deaconesses,  it  seems,  were 
less  exposed  to  danger,  than  men,  in  bringing  bodily  and  spiritual 
help  and  comfort  to  those  in  prison  and  under  persecution.  Thej 
carried  food  to  the  starving,  and  read  to  them  from  the  sacred 
books.  In  peaceful  times  they  ministered  in  various  ways  to  the 
sick,  the  afflicted,  the  bereaved,  especially  among  those  of  their  own 
sex.  "They  understand,"  says  Tertullian,  "the  manifold  emotions 
of  the  human  heart,  and  all  things,  wherewith  a  woman  can  be 
tried."  When  christian  women  were  obliged  to  visit  the  public 
baths,  the  Deaconesses  accompanied  them.  They  prepared  the  bodies 
of  women  for  burial,  and  in  honor  of  the  dead,  rendered  whatever 
service  is  proper  to  women. 

h)  The  Deaconesses  seem  frequently  to  have  had  a  part  in 'the 
bringing  about  of  marriages.  Their  advice  was  sought,  and  they 
especially  befriended  orphaned  girls.  At  weddings,  they  attended 
the  bride,  as  the  deacon  attended  the  bridegroom.  They  were,  so  to 
speak,  the  feelers  of  the  pastoral  office  in  various  relations,  where 
access  was  difficult  to  the  deacons.  If  they  often  became  the  bearers 
of  important  letters  from  the  bishops,  like  Phoebe,  when  she  carried 
the  Epistle  to  the  Romans  ov^r  land  and  sea  to  its  destination,  it 
was  no  doubt  for  the  reason  that  they  were  less  likely  to  attract 
attention,  than  male  messengers.  It  is  supposed  that  for  the  same 
reason,  in  times  of  persecution,  they  had  charge  of  the  most  valuable 
possessions  of  the  Church,  the  sacred  books. 

The  statement  made  in  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  that  "we 
have  need  of  the  Deaconesses  for  various  purposes",  is  confirmed  by 
the  foregoing.  It  is  evident  that  the  customs  of  the  East  demanded 
in  a  greater  measure  a  diaconate  of  the  sort  described,  than  did 
those  of  the  Western  nations,  among  whom  the  intercourse  betweern 
the  sexes  was  much  freer.  Obviously  the  strength  of  the  female  dia- 
conate of  the  early  Church  did  not  lie  where  we  recognize  woman's 
chief  fitness  for  service,  in  the  gift  of  rendering  help  in  every  des- 
cription of  need  and  infirmity  (antilepsis).  This  was  the  result  of 
the  general  churchly  tendency  of  that  age,  but  in  the  end  it  became 
fatal  to  the  deaconess  cause. 

30.  As  for  the  conditions  of  admission  to  the  deaconess  call- 
ing, the  apostolic  directions,  as  given  in  the  Scriptures,  especially 
in  Acts  6,  no  doubt  remained  in  force.  For  the  rest,  no  honest 
class  was  excluded.  We  hear  of  Deaconesses  from  every  rank 
in  life,  rich  and  poor,  descendants  of  consuls  and  senators,  mem- 
bers of  distinguished  families,  and  of  the  laboring  class.  Accord- 
ing to  the  Apostolic  Constitutions  "a  chaste  virgin  shall  be  chosen 
as  Deaconess".  The  conditions  of  age  and  life,  which  obtained  in 
the  election  of  widows,  gradually  lost  their  force  for  the  deaconess 


-  24    - 

calling.  "Modesty  of  behavior  imparts  to  a  maiden  the  dignity, 
and  a  living  faith  the  experience,  which  none  acquire,  merely  from 
being  old."  This  was  the  rule  also  in  the  early  Church.  Olym- 
pias  in  Constantinople  became  a  Deaconess,  when  she  was  till  a 
verylyouthful  widow.  Macrina,  the  sister  of  Gregoiy  of  Nyssa, 
was  ordained  as  a  young  girl.  Chrvsostom  desired  to  ordain  a 
maiden,  Nieareta,  but  she  chose  in  preference  the  convent  life. 
These  and  oth(!r  known  cases  prove,  that  in  the  selection  of  Dea- 
conesses, the  same  principles  were  observed,  by  which  we  at  the 
present  time  are  guided. 

31.  In  proportion  as  the  deaconess  work  became  a  part  of  the 
life  of  the  Church,  and  the  systematic  disposition  and  division  of 
churchly  offices  took  shape,  the  fixed  churchly  form  for  the  ordi- 
nation of  Deaconesses  was  developed.  Repeated  testimony  certifies 
that  a  regular  ordination  took  place.  It  occurred  at  the  chief  ser- 
vice. The  candidate  was  invested  with  a  veil,  and  Avith  bowed 
head  stood,  not  knelt,  before  the  altar.  The  bishop,  with  the  lay- 
ing on  of  hands,  repeated  the  prayer  mentioned  above,  which  is  as 
follows:  "Everlasting  and  merciful  God,  Father  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  who  hast  created  men  and  Avomen  for  Thy  service ;  who 
didst  fill  with  Thy  Holy  Spirit  Miriam  and  Deborah,  Hannah  and 
Huldah ;  who  didst  not  disdain  that  Thine  only-begotten  Son 
should  be  born  of  a  woman ;  \\'ho  also,  in  the  tabernacle  and  in 
the  temple,  didst  ordain  Momen  to  be  keepers  of  Thy  holy 
gate :  look  graciously  down  upon  these  Thy  handmaids  mIio  have 
been  appointed  for  Thy  service;  grant  them  Thy  Holy  Spirit  and 
cleanse  them  from  all  filthiness  of  the  flesh  and  spirit,  that  they 
may  worthily  perform  the  Mork  committed  to  their  hands,  for 
Thine  honor  and  to  the  praise  of  Thy  Christ,  to  Avhom,  with  Thee 
and  the  Holy  Ghost,  be  glory  and  adoration,  world  without  end. 
Amen." — Deacons  aud  Deaconesses  assisted.  The  stole,  a  strip  of 
cloth  typifying  the  yoke  of  Christ,  was  placed  on  the  shoulders  of 
the  candidate,  with  the  words  :  "The  Lord  clothe  thee  with  the 
garment  of  His  good  pleasure."  It  seems  that  in  some  places  a  ring 
and  a  chain  for  the  neck  Avere  given  the  Deaconess.  The  ceremony 
closed  with  the  celebration  of  the  Holy  Communion  in  both  kinds. 
Afterwards  the  stole  was  removed,  and  not  worn  again.  The  con- 
secrated Deaconesses  were  reckoned  among  the  clergy,  but  possessed 
no  priestly  rights  whatever. 

32.  Regarding  the  Deaconesses'  manner  of  life,  we  can  do  little 
more  than  conjecture.  A  strict  supervision  was  exercised.  When 
once  they  had  become  Deaconesses,  they  could  not  abandon  their 
calling,  for  instance  in  order  to  marry.  Even  at  that  early  period 
the  principles  began  to  assert  themselves,  wdiich  afterwards 
in  the  Romish  Church  were  to  govern  marriage  and  ordination. 
As  a  matter  of  course,  the  servants  of  the   Church  were  bound,  in 


—  25  — 

their  relations  with  men,  scrupulously  to  avoid  any  appearance  of 
evil.  Carelessness  was  punished,  sometimes  with  life-long  seclusion. 
If  the  Deaconesses  possessed  property,  care  was  taken  that  they  ad- 
ministered it  properly.  They  were  not  peniiitted,  to  the  exclusion 
of  legitimate  claims,  to  enrich  churches  and  institutions.  For  "if 
any  provide  not  for  his  own,  and  specially  for  those  of  his  own 
house,  he  hath  denied  the  faith,  and  is  worse  than  an  infidel."  (1. 
Tim.  5,  8.)  This  does  not  however  forbid  the  Deaconesses,  with 
prudence  and  forethought,  to  exercise  the  most  liberal  beneficence 
within  the  Church.  They  seem  not  to  have  worn  a  specified  dress, 
especially  during  seasons  of  persecutions,  partly  for  the  reason 
that  it  would  have  served  to  attract  attention.  Later  on,  widows 
are  mentioned  as  having  laid  aside  the  lay  habit,  and  assumed  the 
ecclesiastical  dress.  Whether  this  applies  to  nuns  or  to  Deaco- 
nesses, cannot  well  be  ascertained.  Doubtless  the  latter,  in  accor- 
dance with  the  directions  given  by  the  Apostle,  wore  a  dress, 
"which  becometh  women  professing  godliness  with  good  works." 
(1.  Tim.  2,  10.)  A  letter  of  St.  Augustine  intimates  that  black 
was  the  color  preferred. 


CHAPTER  V. 

Ths  Rise  and  Declins  of  the  Diaconate  of  the  early  Church. 

33.  The  deaconess  office,  as  described  in  the  Apostolic  Con- 
stitutions, answered  pre-eminently  to  the  requirements  of  the 
Greek-Oriental  Church.  As  Phoebe,  the  deaconess  of  Cenchrea, 
sprang  from  and  belonged  to  the  Greek  Church,  so  the  entire  fe- 
male diaconate  of  the  early  times,  had  its  origin  and  its  growth 
there.  The  fourth  century  marks  the  period  of  its  highest  deve- 
lopment. When  Chrysostom,  in  397 — 407,  Avas  bishop  of  Con- 
stantinople, forty  deaconesses  labored  under  his  direction.  Among 
them  were  women  of  noble  birth,  as  Procula,  Pentadia  and  Sylvana. 
Prominent  among  them  all  was  Olympias.  She  was  born  in  the 
year  368,  the  daughter  of  a  highly  distinguished  family  ;  and  in 
her  youth. enjoyed  the  friendship  of  the  bishop  Gregory  of  Nazianz. 
After  marrying  a  highstanding  imperial  officer,  Nebridius,  she  be- 
came a  widow  about  the  year  386.  She  was  beautiful,  devout, 
and  possessed  of  boundless  wealth.  The  Emperor  Theodosius 
wished  to  give  her  in  marriage  to  one  of  his  kinsmen,  but  she  re- 
fused, giving  as  her  reason,  that  if  God  had  wished  her  to  remain 
married.  He  would  not  have  called  away  her  husband.  Now,  she 
said,  she  desired  to  serve  the  Lord.  The  bishop  Nectarius  con- 
secrated her  to  the  deaconess  office.  When  the  Emperor,  incensed 
at  her  resistance,  confiscated  her  property,  until  she  should  have 
reached  the  age  of  thirty  years,  she  thanked  him,  saying  that  he 
had  shown  himself,  not  as  an  emperor  only,  but  as  a  bishop,  to- 
ward her,  by  laying  the  troublesome  administration  of  her  estates 
upon  his  own  officials,  thus  relieving  her  of  the  care  and  anxiety 
in  properly  using  her  riches.  The  Emperor,  repenting  of  his 
severity,  soon  afterwards  restored  her  rights.  She  then  exercised 
so  munificent  a  liberality,  that  her  benevolence  was  likened  to 
a  stream,  whence  all  might  draw,  and  which  flowed  to  the  ends 
of  the  earth.  She  herself  lived  in  the  greatest  simplicity.  While 
Chrysostom  Avarns  against  the  dangers  besetting  women  who 
lead  a  spiritual  life,  aa'Iio,  having  renounced  the  A'anities  of  Avorldly 
dress,  now  seek  by  their  very  simplicity  to  excel  and  appear  more 
charming  than  all  others,  this  danger,  seems,  in  Olympias'  case  to 
have  been  entirely  overcome.  Her  outward  simplicity  was  merely 
the  expression  of  her  saintly  simplicity  of  soul.      Her  benevolence 


—  27  — 

and  her  ministrations  were  guided  by  the  pastoral  advice  of  Chry- 
sostom,  that  excellent  man  and  bishop.  When,  because  of  hi& 
steadfastness  in  the  faith,  he  was  driven  into  exile,  her  path  became 
a  thorny  one  indeed.  Wise  and 'faithful  as  she  was,  she  became  a 
support  to  the  adherents  in  Constantinople  of  the  exiled  bishop  ; 
in  consequence  of  which  she  was  traduced  by  his  enemies,  and  even 
annoyed  with  judicial  proceedings.  Chrysostom,  from  his  place  of 
exile,  wrote  her  many  letters,  seventeen  of  which  are  still  extant. 
They  bear  abundant  testimony  to  his  high  appreciation  of  the 
deaconess  office,  and  to  his  faithful,  pastoral  care  of  the  sisters. 
On  the  other  hand,  they  show  how  strongly  the  current  of  a  mis- 
taken work-righteousness,  had  begun  to  assert  itself  within  the 
church.  Chrysostom  died  in  exile  in  the  year  409,  with  the  words  : 
"God  be  praised  for  all  things  !"  Olympias,  admonished  by  him 
to  bear  her  cross  with  patience,  was  not  permitted  until  the  year 
420,  to  enter  into  the  rest  prepared  for  the  people  of  God. 

As  in  the  churches  of  the  Greek-Macedonian  peninsula,  so  in 
those  of  Asia  Minor  the  diaconate  was  established.  The  letters  of 
Ignatius  mention  the  deaconesses  of  Antioch  in  Syria.  Later 
testimony  is  furnished  in  the  lives  of  the  great  bishops  of  Asia 
Minor,  Gregory  of  Nazianz,  Basil  and  Gregory  of  Nyssa.  Macrina, 
the  sister  of  the  two  last-named,  was  a  deaconess.  Descended 
from  a  noble,  christian  family,  she,  as  the  older  sister,  and  as  a 
woman  of  high  spiritual  endowments,  exercised  great  influence 
upon  the  religious  development  and  career  of  her  brothers,  and 
after  her  father's  death  became  her  mother's  support  in  times  of 
great  sorrow.  She  was  betrothed,  but  her  lover  dying,  she  re- 
mained unmarried.  Consecrated  a  deaconess,  she  served  in  her 
calling ;  but  in  later  years,  in  company  with  other,  like-minded 
women,  gave  herself  up  to  a  more  conventual  and  contemplative 
life,  subject  to  severe  discipline.  This  inclination  was  favored  by 
the  tendency  of  the  time.  Her  death  was  very  edifying,  and  mul- 
titudes accompanied  to  her  grave  the  sister  of  two  of  their  most 
eminent  bishops,  herself  greatly  distinguished  for  the  sake  of  her 
faith. 

34.  That  the  deaconess  office  was  brought  to  Italy  and 
especially  to  Rome,  seems  to  be  proven  by  the  mention  of  Phoebe 
in  the  Epistle  to  the  Romans,  even  though  further  evidences 
were  wanting.  These  indeed,  are  scant.  The  daughters  of  a  Senator, 
Praxedis  and  Pudentiana,  gave  their  house  and  property  to  the 
church,  and  were  deaconesses.  The  Church  of  St.  Pudentiana, 
one  of  the  most  ancient  in  Rome,  is  said  to  be  built  ujion  the 
site  of  the  sisters'  house.  They  were  buried  together,  near  the 
Salarian  road.  Daciana  and  Theodora  were  deaconesses,  whose 
tombs  are  in  the  catacombs.  Other  names  are  Lampadia  and 
Romana,  who  seem  to   have  been  superintending  deaconesses. — 


—  28  — 

The  diaooiiate  penetrated  even  into  Gaul  and  Ireland,  yet  few  de- 
tails of  its  fate  in  those  countries  are  preserved  to  us.  It  is  said  to 
have  been  l)rought  to  Irehuid  directly  from  the  East.  Whether 
St.  Bridii;et,  a  contemporary  <jf  tiie  Irish  ajMjstle  Patrick,  Avas  a  nun 
or  a  deaconess,  is  uncertahi.  It  appears  from  her  history,  almost 
entirely  obscured  however  by  mytiiical  additions,  that  she  received 
churchly  consecration,  and  spent  her  life  in  the  service  of  the 
church  and  in  works  of  mercy.  She  died  about  the  year  520,  and 
is  buried  near  the  altar  in  the  church  at  Kildare.  In  Germany, 
the  regular  deaconess-work  of  the  early  church  does  not  seem  to 
have  found  an  entrance. 

.  35.  In  reviewing  the  above  notices  upon  the  spread  of  the  fe- 
male diaconate  in  the  early  church  we  are  struck  by  the  fact,  that 
the  broad  channel,  which  it  evidently  made  for  itself  in  the  Greek 
church,  became  noticeably  contracted  in  the  West.  If  we  look 
aright,  it  is  not  because  the  form  assumed  by  the  diaconate  in  the 
East,  was  unsuited  to  Western  conditions.  Woman's  special 
gift  for  the  service  in  the  church,  the  gift  of  "antilepsis,"  of 
rendering  help,  has  its  field  both  in  the  province  of  education,  and 
in  the  relief  of  the  manifold  ills  of  the  body.  The  diaconate  of 
the  Greek-Oriental  Church  was  indeed  acquainted  with  the  latter 
form  of  female  ministry ;  but  it  seems  not  to  have  especially  in- 
sisted upon,  or  to  have  officially  developed  it.  On  the  other  hand 
the  educational  features  became  more  prominent,  and  in  a  manner 
which  no  doubt,  greatly  resembled  the  present  missionary  work  of 
women  in  India.  Most  particularly  was  the  deaconess'  partici- 
pation in  churchly  ordinances  encouraged,  in  accordance  with 
the  ecclesiastical  conditions  of  the  East.  In  proportion  as  the 
church  became  the  church  of  the  people,  by  the  fact  that  infant 
baptism  took  the  place  of  missionary  baptism,  a  re-organization  of 
the  diaconate  became  necessary  ;  in  the  West  such  a  re-organiza- 
tion would  not  have  become  imperative,  owing  to  the  freer  mutual 
relation  of  the  sexes.  For  this  however,  the  church-life  no  longer 
possessed  sufficient  vigor  and  spontaneity  A  two-fold  tendency 
then  asserted  itself,  which  could  not  fail  to  become  increasingly 
disastrous  to  the  diaconate. 

36.  The  first  to  make  itself  felt  was  the  hierarchical  tendency 
of  the  ecclesiastical  office,  and  of  the  entire  clerical  life.  We  can- 
not commend  it,  leading  as  it  did  to  the  radically  false  position  of  the 
Romish  priesthood,  to  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy,  and  to  many  other 
errors  of  the  Romish  church.  In  one  point  this  tendency  however, 
cannot  be  condemned,  namely  in  its  opposition  to  woman's  partici- 
pation in  the  churchly  service  in  its  stricter  sense.  Under  the 
conditions  prevailing  in  the  Orient,  and  as  a  makeshift,  it  might 
in  the  beginning  have  been  permitted  ;  but  if  the  chief  strength 
of  the  female  diaconate  of  the   early    church,  actually  lay    in  its 


—  29  — 

functions  at  the  worship  o±  the  congregation,  it  was  a  mistake,  and 
could  not  bear  the  test  of  time.  A  touching  of  the  hem  of  the  Lord's 
garment  is  the  most  that  can  be  permitted  to  women.  And  extreme 
tact  and  discretion  are  required,  to  prevent  even  the  small  minis- 
trations that  may  be  allowed,  from  outraging  churchly  pro- 
priety. Without  any  idea  on  the  part  of  deaconesses  of  bold 
intrusion  into  the  province  of  the  pastoral  office,  —  the  position 
held  by  them,  as  described  by  the  Apostolic  Constitutions,  was 
sufficient  to  make  a  change  imperative.  The  female  diaconate  of 
the  early  church  approached  too  near  the  ''altar ;"  withdrew  too 
far  from  the  "doors  ;"  it  took  upon  itself  too  much  of  the  ministry 
in  the  church,  at  the  expense  of  the  ministry  in  the  congregation. 
Doubtless,  here  lies  the  cause  of  its  decline,  which  could  have  been 
avoided  only  by  a  radical  re-organization.  But  that  the  latter  had 
become  impossible  ;  that  in  this  respect  the  church-life  was  no  lon- 
ger sufficiently  pure  and  strong,  may  be  chiefly  attributed  to  the 
prevailing  tendency  of  spiritual  life,  which  we  usually  designate  as 
a  ffdsely  ascetic  renunciation  of  the  zvorld,  and  mortification  of  the 
flesh. 

The  unregenerate  man  is  self-righteous.  Therefore  it  is  easy 
to  conceive  that  notwithstanding  the  clear  testimony  of  God's 
word,  the  christian  life  is  «.'ontinually  in  danger  of  lapsing  into 
work-  and  self-righteousness,  however  refined.  Where  this  ten- 
dency is  changed  into  a  seeking  after  genuine  spiritual  righte- 
ousness, in  conformity  with  the  divine  law,  it  is  aided  by  the  con- 
stant realization  of  sin  and  grace,  as  experienced  by  St.  Paul.  But 
it  is  only  too  ready,  to  be(!ome  externalized  into  ordinances  and 
achievements,  by  means  of  which,  even  in  the  times  of  Old  Testa- 
ment Judaism,  it  succeeded  in  maintaining  its  ascendency.  When 
the  tendency  to  work-righteousness  became  increasingly  predomi- 
nant in  the  early  church,  it  sought  at  first  to  satisfy  itself  by  the  ex- 
ercise of  outward  renunciation.  Thus  originated  the  life  of  the  hermit 
and  of  the  monk.  Persons  bound  themselves  by  vows,  to  renounce 
marriage,  wealth  and  their  own  desires.  They  endeavored  to  over- 
come the  resistance  of  nature  by  mortification  of  the  flesh  ;  over- 
looking the  fact,  that  outward  renunciation  differs  wholly  from  in- 
ward sanctification.  At  all  events,  the  form  taken  by  monasticism 
was,  and  continued  to  be  alltogether  unevangelical.  We  admit  that 
the  convents  of  old  were  productive  of  much  good,  and  that  a 
withdrawal  from  the  world,  in  view  of  the  rude  and  stormy  con- 
dition of  society,  was  in  a  measure  justifiable.  We  are  even  in- 
clined to  believe  that  a  certain  cultivation  of  the  associated  life, 
within  judicious  limits,  is  at  all  times  of  great  importance  for  the 
church  ;  and  cannot,  without  loss,  be  entirely  dispensed  with.  Yet 
the  monastic  tendency,  which  in  the  olden  time  commended  itself 
to  women  especially,  could  not   fail   to   prove   the   grave   of  the 


—  80  — 

female  diaconatc.  In  the  same  measure,  as  the  latter  in  its  true 
form  led  its  members  abroad,  into  the  life  of  the  conr^regation,  the 
monastic  life  became  its  ruin.  And  yet  it  was  precisely  the  asso- 
ciative feature  of  conventual  life,  which  in  the  fidlness  of  time, 
became  the  protecting-  envelope,  out  of  which  the  female  diaconate 
blossomed  into  new  life.  It  was  not  the  outward  form  of  convent 
life  which  was  at  fault,  but  rather  the  false  ascetic  principle  which 
governed  it,  and  which  caused  the  diaconate  of  the  early  church, 
unable  to  adapt  itself  to  changed  conditions,  to  perish  rapidly. 

37.  In  the  East,  the  diaconate  reached  its  highest  develop- 
ment during  the  fourth  century,  after  which  it  fell  into  decline. 
In  the  AVest,  being  less  deeply  rooted  in  the  life  of  the  church,  its 
decay  was  more  rapid.  We  occasionally  meet  with  indications  of 
the  suspicion  with  which  deaconesses  came  to  be  regtirded.  Their 
mode  of  life  did  not  offer  the  same  safeguards  as  did  the  seclusion 
of  the  convent ;  therefore  the  age-limit,  at  which  they  were  entitled 
to  churchly  ordination,  was  set  forward.  It  has  even  occured, 
that  deaconesses,  who  married  after  their  consecration,  w(u-e  pun- 
ished with  death.  As  early  as  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century, 
an  isolated  decree  of  the  council  of  Laodicea  forbade  the  ordination 
of  deaconesses.  Such  prohibitions  were  repeated  in  the  fifth  cen- 
tury by  Galilean  provincial  synods  ;  to  be  effective,  of  course  only 
within  their  own  restricted  limits.  In  Gaul  itself  we  hear  of  the 
ordination  of  a  deaconess,  as  late  as  the  sixth  century.  Yet  these 
prohibitions  are  significant  indications  of  the  general  drift  of 
opinion.  When  the  churchly  ordination  of  deaconesses  was  dis- 
continued, their  calling  became  a  mere  private  affair.  And  so  it 
happened,  that  after  the  eighth  century  the  female  diaconate  came 
to  be  practically  unknown  in  the  West.  In  the  tenth  century,  the 
priest  Ambrose,  in  JNIilan,  wrote  a  letter  in  which  he  asks  the 
meaning  of  the  term  presbyteress  or  deaconess,  occuring  in  an 
episcopal  decree.  He  knew  nothing  whatever  of  the  office.  In 
the  East,  notwithstanding  the  occasional  early  instances  of  opposi- 
tion to  the  ordination  of  deaconesses,  the  diaconate  sustained  itself 
longer.  In  Constantinople  there  were  deaconesses  in  the  twelfth 
century,  and  there  still  exists  in  that  city  a  church,  known  as  the 
"Church  of  the  Deaconesses."  In  other  centers  of  the  Greek- 
Oriental  church,  the  diaconate  seems  at  that  time  to  have  wholly 
disappeared.  A  famous  teacher  of  canon-law  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, Balsamon,  writes  that  in  former  times  deaconesses  had  been 
acknowledged  by  the  canons,  and  even  had  access  to  the  altar  ; 
while  herefrom,  he  adds,  women  are  debarred,  by  reason  of  their 
sex.  In  the  holy  congregation  of  the  capitol,  Constantinople, 
deaconesses  continued  to  be  elected,  without  however,  being  per- 
mitted access  to  the  altar.  They  met  together  on  frequent  occa- 
sions, and  presided  at  the  churchly  assemblies  of  women.  These 
were  not  ordained. 


_  31  — 

38.  Notwithstanding  the  disfavor  of  the  times,  various  memo- 
ries of  the  early  diaconate  have  survived.  In  the  convents,  the 
sister  who  has  charge  of  the  cleaning  of  the  church,  and  guards 
the  door,  is  called  the  "deaconess."  And  in  certain  commtniities, 
which,  on  account  of  divergent  doctrinal  views  seceded  from  the 
orthodox  church,  the  office  itself  continued  in  force.  The  Jacobites 
of  the  Syrian  church,  under  their  leader  Jacob  Baradai  or  Zanzalus, 
about  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century,  rejected  the  doctrine  of  the 
twofold  nature  of  Christ.  The  diaconate  was  preserved  among 
them,  essentially  the  same  as  in  the  early  church.  Their  patriarch 
Michael,  in  the  twelfth  century,  gave  the  bishops  renewed  permis- 
sion to  ordain  deaconesses,  because  they  were  needed.  The  same 
Avas  the  case  among  the  Nestorians,  a  community  which  separated 
from  the  church  under  Nestorius  when  in  the  year  431,  the  council 
of  Ephesus  rejected  his  doctrine  of  the  separation  of  the  two  na- 
tures ot  Christ.  Regulations  for  the  ordination  of  deaconesses, 
compiled  l)y  this  sect  about  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
are  still  in  existence,  and  closely  resemble  those  of  the  early  church. 
The  deaconess  is  to  be  taken  from  a  convent,  is  to  be  forty  to  sixty 
years  of  age,  and  well  recommended.  The  ordination  prayer  is 
recited  by  the  bishop,  who  places  his  hands  upon  the  head  of  the 
candidate  standing  before  the  altar.  It  is  an  imitation  of  the 
ancient  prayer  of  consecration,  with  a  strong  flavor  of  work-righte- 
ousness. The  ceremony  closes  with  the  admonition  to  the  newly- 
eonsecrated  deaconess,  to  guard  herself  against  pride. 

More  important  than  these  petrified  remains,  seems  to  us  a 
little  branch  springing  from  the  Germanic  church,  otherwise  al- 
most untouched  by  the  ancient  diaconate,  and  which  greets  us  as  a 
blossom  prophecying  a  new  Spring-time  for  woman's  service  in  the 
church. 

39.  In  the  middle  of  the  seventh  century  there  ruled  in 
Alsace  a  duke  Attich,  who  commanded  his  first-born  child,  a 
daughter,  reported  to  have  been  born  blind,  to  be  ])ut  to  death. 
The  mother  rescued  the  child,  and  secretly  placed  it  in  a  convent, 
where  it  was  baptized,  and,  it  is  said,  after  baptism  became  see- 
ing. The  little  one  received  the  name  Odilia.  Hugh,  one  of  her 
later-born  brothers,  meeting  her,  after  she  was  grown  to  Moman- 
hood,  he  ventured  to  introduce  her  to  their  father,  who  then  resided 
in  the  Castle  of  Hohenburg.  In  his  anger,  the  duke  struck  his 
son  so  violently,  that  he  died  soon  after.  Th(>n  the  duke's  hard 
heart  was  softened.  He  did  not  a  second  time  repudiate  his  daugh- 
ter. To  be  sure,  she  was  not  of  a  mind  to  please  her  father.  Her 
heart  was  aflame  with  the  love  of  Jesus.  Instead  of  yielding  to 
her  father,  who  wished  to  give  her  in  marriage  to  a  princely  suitor, 
her  heart  was  set  upon  a  life  wholly  devoted  to  the  service  of  the 
Lord.     After  long  resistance,  her  parents  finally  yielded.       Odilia 


—  82  — 

then  gathered  around  her  at  Hohenburg  believing  maidens  for 
mutual  improvement  in  christian  knowledge,  and  for  works  of 
charity.  Their  number  increased  to  one  hundred  and  thirty.  Her 
parents  took  an  ever  livelier  interest  in  her  efforts.  Odilia  was 
under  the  guidance  of  Scottish  and  Irish  missionaries,  who,  more 
than  was  generally  the  case,  had  kept  aloof  from  Romish  influence. 
This  may  explain  why  she,  altiiough  a  daughter  of  her  time,  yet 
found  no  satisfaction  in  the  self-righteous  asceticism,  the  merely 
contemplative  life  of  the  convent.  She  gave  her  sisters  no  rules. 
"  We  should  bind  no  one  but  ourselves,"  slie  said,  ''and  be  mind- 
ful of  those  who  come  after  us."  Mortifications  of  the  flesh  and 
severe  penances  were  not  practised,  for  "not  that  which  enfeebles 
the  body,  but  that  which  purifies  the  soul,  should  be  our  aim." 
The  requirements  of  holy  charity  furnish  sufficient  bodily  labor, 
exercise  and  discipline.  The  foundation  Hohenburg  became 
wealthy.  Many  of  the  poor,  the  sick  and  infirm  being  unable  to 
climb  the  hill,  Odilia  established  a  colony  at  its  foot,  from  whence 
the  sisters  could,  without  great  lossof  time  visit  the  sick  and  needy, 
A  hospice,  a  hospital  and  an  almshouse,  together  with  a  church 
and  a  home  for  the  sisters  were  built  here,  and  in  contrast  to 
Hohenburg,  the  settlement  was  named  Niedermuenster,  Odilia 
superintended  her  sisterhood  for  forty  years.  She  nursed  her 
parents,  and  was  the  comfort  of  their  old  age.  Many  of  her  kins- 
people  also  entered  tlie  service  of  the  church,  and  founded  institu- 
tions in  her  spirit.  On  December  13th,  720,  after  receiving  the 
Holy  Communion  in  both  kinds,  she  fell  asleep  in  Christ,  sur- 
rounded by  her  sisters.  Her  death  took  place  in  the  Hall  of  St. 
John,  at  Hohenburg.  She  was  afterwards  canonized,  the  pope 
appointing  her  patron-saint  of  Alsace,  and  placing  her  foundations 
under  Benedictine  rule.  For  this  she  is  not  answerable.  A  few 
miles  from  Strasburg,  the  ruins  of  "Odilia's  Convent"  are  still  to 
be  seen. 

Odilia  was  not  a  deaconess  in  the  sense  of  the  early  church, 
nor  yet  a  nun  in  the  sense  of  the  Romish  Church,  of  that  or  of  a 
later  day.  Compared  with  the  Irish  Bridget,  she  seems  as  a  flower, 
compared  to  the  bud.  On  the  other  hand,  her  work  seems  a  pro- 
phecy of  the  form  in  which,  centuries  later,  a  new  future  was 
granted  to  the  churchly  ministry  of  women  ;  corresponding  alike 
to  the  needs  of  the  church,  to  the  Word  of  God,  and  to  woman's 
capability,  A  german,  princely  woman,  following  Jesus,  Odilia 
stands  outside  of  the  more  and  more  strongly  marked  opposing 
tendencies  of  the  church,  —  half-way  between  the  female  diaconate 
of  the  past  and  the  present ;  a  genuine  deaconess  figure,  springing 
like  a  flower  from  the  deep  soil  of  the  church,  ever  and  indestruct- 
ibly the  same. 


CHAPTER  VI.  I 

Ths  Renewal  of  Woman's  Ministry  in  the  Romish  Church. 

40.  In  ^evie^villg  the  history  of  the  female  diaconate,  the 
corresponding'  developments  in  the  Romish  Church  should  un- 
doubtedly be  considered  also.  They  have  directly  and  effectively 
influenced  the  modern  protestant  form  of  the  diaconate.  A  correct 
appreciation  of  the  latter  will  therefore  be  impossible,  without  a 
knowledge  of  the  former. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  after  the  early  centuries,  during  and  after 
the  Middle  Ages,  women  were  prac^tically  excluded  from  the 
charitable  work  of  the  Church.  The  passages  of  Scripture,  especially 
of  the  New  Testament,  which  refer  to  the  female  diaconate,  cite 
as  its  center,  the  exercise  of  mercy,  which  is  in  harmony  with  the 
manifest  abilities  of  women.  But,  as  we  have  seen,  even  the  female 
diaconate  of  the  early  Church,  in  its  later  development,  no  longer 
possessed  this  center.  The  exercise  of  mercy  fell  more  exclusively 
to  the  share  of  the  bishops  and  their  deacons.  Later  on,  their 
place  was  taken  by  the  monastic,  and  afterwards  by  the  chivalrous 
and  civic  orders,  specially  organized  for  the  care  of  the  sick  and  the 
poor.  That  in  all  ages  devout  women  have  practiced  mercy,  that 
they  have  used  their  gifts  in  the  education  of  children,  in  the  re- 
lief of  suffering  and  destitution,  is  certain.  It  was  this  gift  that 
led  to  an  activity  like  Odilia's,  which  yet,  as  an  exceptional  instance, 
stands  out  the  more  prominently  from  the  general  tendency  of  the 
time.  This  tendency  absolutely  discountenanced  all  public  and 
churchly  ministry  on  the  part  of  unmarried  women,  whether  in 
the  immediate  service  of  the  sanctuary,  or  in  the  exercise  of  mercy 
(antilepsis).  From  the  close  of  the  early  period  to  the  end  of  the 
twelfth  century,  this  state  of  affairs  seems  to  have  formed  the  rule. 
Then  a  change  began  to  take  place,  A^•hich  very  gradually  led  to 
fixed  and  generally  acknowledged  organizations.  Our  chief  interest 
in  the  history  of  woman's  ministry  in  the  Romish  Church,  lies  in 
the  progress  and  consummation  ot  this  change. 

41.  If  we  ask,  why  women  in  the  Medieval  Church  were  ex- 
cluded from  all  public  activity,  not  only  from  the  service  of  the 
sanctuary  in  its  stricter  sense,  but  also  from  the  churchly  exercise  of 
mercy,  we  do  not  find  that  the  reason  lies  in  the  principles  of  con- 
ventual asceticism  and  renunciation  of  the  world.  If  it  did,  monks 


—  34  — 

Would  have  heen  similarly  debarred.  The  <i;ro\ving  pn-doininence  of 
work-riiyhteousness  prevented  the  exercise  of  mercy  in  the  j)ro|)er 
spirit,  l)ut  to  the  work  itself  this  tendency  was  rather  favorable 
than  otherwise.  While  this  tendency  alike  prevailed  in  the  convents 
of  monks  and  of  nuns,  and  throuirhout  these  centuries  the  form 
unitini";  convent  life  and  charital)le  activity,  so  eminently  conj^enial 
to  woman's  nature,  Avas  yet  not  discovered, — the  reason  nuist  be 
songht  in  the  conditions  of  the  age.  Marriage  or  the  con- 
vent were  the  two  alternatives  o})en  to  women.  The  unmarried 
woman  was  relegated  to  the  convent;  and  convent-life,  although 
not  of  necessity,  excluded  women  from  all  public  activity.  The 
times  were  too  disordcrlv,  the  manners  too  rude,  for  Christian  young 
woman  to  go  abroad  unhindered  and  witliout  danger.  So  long  as 
the  fact  that  she  was  a  member  of  a  closely  compacted  association 
was  insutheient  to  protect  her  ;  so  long  as  sv>cIusion  behind  high 
walls  was  necessary,  so  long  the  condition  of  society  forbade  a 
pul)lic,  churchly  activity  on  her  |)art. 

4'2.  In  the  Middle  Ages  it  was  only  women  of  high  degree, 
who,  protected  by  power  and  rank,  first  vcnttired  out  into  the 
world  with  deeds  of  charity.  Among  the  names  handed  down  to 
us  is  that  of  Ida  of  Herzfeld,  of  Frankish  descent,  who  lived 
Avith  her  husband,  Count  Ekbert,  in  Saxony,  near  the  river  Lippe. 
After  she  became  a  widow,  she  wore  the  veil,  but  without  entering 
a  convent,  and  gave  herself  up  wholly  to  a  life  of  charity  and 
praver.  The  church  at  Herzfeld,  which  she  founded,  and  after 
which  she  was  named  by  the  i)eoj)le,  was  the  scene  of  her  activity. 
Here  she  built  a  cloistered  walk,  and  in  it  she  had  placed  the  stone 
sarcophagus,  which  Avas  one  day  to  be  her  own  T^vice  each  day 
this  was  filled  with  gifts,  which  she  herself,  with  the  assistance  of 
a  devoted  priest,  distributed  to  the  needy  and  destitute,  who  came 
from  far  and  near  to  share  her  bounty.  She  died  nl)out  the  year  820. 
Another  name  is  more  familiar, — that  of  (iueen  Matilda,  the  Avife 
of  Henry  I.,  and  the  mother  of  the  Emperor  Otho  the  Great.  She 
Avas  of  the  race  of  the  Saxon  Duke  Wittekind,  and  was  born  about 
the  year  890.  She  Avas  educated  in  the  convent  of  Hcrford,  under 
the  supervision  of  her  grandmother,  who  in  her  widowhood  had 
taken  the  veil.  She  married  about  909.  In  the  course  of  her 
happy,  God-fearing  married  life,  sh^  and  her  husband  founded  the 
church  and  abbey  at  Quedlinburg,  where  they  lie  buried  side 
by  side.  She  was  a  widoAV  for  more  than  thirty  years,  and  ex- 
perienced many  of  life's  greatest  joys  and  deepest  sorroAVS.  Numer- 
ous foundations  owe  their  origin  to  this  pious  and  unweariedly 
active  Avoman,  especially  nunneries,  Avhich  she  endeavored  to  con- 
vert into  "walled  castles  and  nurseries  of  a  holy  christian  life  in  a  vio- 
lent and  tempestuous  age."  There  the  innocent  Avere  to  find  a  refuge, 
the  needy  help,  the  suffering  consolation.      From   them   a  higher 


--  35  — 

intellectual  and  spiritual  culture  was  to  radiate  throughout  the  land 
Convents  and  schools  were  to  be  identical.  The  royal  lady  sought 
strength  in  prayer  for  her  manifold  and  far-reaching  activity,  and 
was  a  touching  example  of  industry  and  labor.  Everywhere, 
at  home  and  on  journeys,  she  sought  out  the  poor,  assisted  the 
traveller,  visited  the  homes  of  the  sick,  and  herself  instructed  her 
servants,  especially  in  the  art  of  reading.  If  during  the  day  she  had 
been  unable  to  accomplish  any  handiwork,  she  reproached  herself, 
since  "if  any  would  not  work,  ■  neither  should  he  eat."  Beside  her 
eager  care  for  the  highest  good,  she  was  not  wanting  in  fidelity  to 
her  earthly  household  ;  and  in  her  humility  and  her  dignity,  was 
the  object  of  the  reverent  admiration  of  her  contemporaries.  She 
died  in  the  year  968. 

We  sec  IVom  these  isolated  examples,  how  Christian  women 
were  drawn  by  their  own  hearts  to  the  service  and  imitation  of  Him, 
who  first  loved  them.  But  if  the  Church  was  to  be  able  to  meet 
with  general  rules  this  bent  of  woman's  mind,  it  was  necessary 
that  the  times  should  change.  Only  toward  the  end  of  the  twelfth 
century  do  we  find  distinct  indications,  that  a  new  era  is  actually 
at  hand. 

43.  Souls  were  more  than  ever  attracted  to  convent  life,  as  a 
harbor  of  refuge,  and  a  means  of  certain  salvation.  In  proportion 
to  the  growing  degeneracy,  justification  by  means  of  works  and  of 
mistaken,  self-righteous  penances  assumed  more  definite  shape.  Per- 
sons were  also  permitied  to  connect  themselves  with  the  monastic 
life  after  the  freer  manner  of  the  so-called  Tertiaries,  whose  ad- 
herents lived  in  seclusion  in  the  midst  of  the  world.  This  order 
of  Tertiaries  found  great  favor,  especially  among  ^vomen.  And 
quite  as  a  mattter  of  course,  women  living  according  to  this  rule 
came  to  practise  such  works  of  mercy  as  were  consistent  with 
asceticism.  All  this  is  significant.  This  re-organization  of  the  life 
of  christian  women,  which  gradually  came  about,  was  by  no  means 
confined  to  those  of  the  higher  classes,  although  it  is  mostly  with 
these  that  history  makes  us  acquainted. — The  Duchess  Hedwig  of 
Silesia  is  said  only  once  in  forty  years,  during  an  illness,  to  have 
eaten  meat.  She  daily  fed  thirteen  beggars,  often  upon  her  knees. 
She  cleansed  and  kissed  the  sores  of  lepers,  and  was  distinguished 
by  her  patience,  calmness  and  peace  of  soul  After  the  death  of 
her  husband,  she  entered  a  convent  which  she  had  founded,  and  of 
which  her  daughter  was  the  abbess.  She  died  in  1243. — The 
daughter  of  her  sister,  Queen  Gertrude  of  Hungary,  was  St.  Eliza- 
beth, Landgravine  of  Thuringia,  whose  figure  is  surrounded  by  a 
halo  of  poetic  traditions.  More  than  all  others,  she  became  to  the 
German  people  the  embodiment  of  woman's  calling,  which  consists 
in  serving  the  Saviour  by  works  of  mercy  toward  the  least  of  His 
members. 


—  86  — 

Elizabeth  was  born  at  Prcsbiirji;  in  lliint^ary,  in  t lie  year  1207  ; 
at  the  a^e  of  four  years  she  was  betrothed  to  the  son  of  the  Land- 
grave Herman  of  Thuringia,  and  taken  to  the  Wartbnrg,  near 
Eisenach.  The  AYartburo;:  was  then  a  center  of  courtly  (uilture,  of 
poetry  and  ])leasure.  Thus  Elizabeth  urew  up  amid  brilliant 
surroundings,  and  was  a  haj)py  child  ;  but  even  in  her  childish 
play,  the  serious  bent  of  her  character  unconsciously  asserted 
itself  Her  betrothed,  the  Landgrave  Ludwig,  succeeded  his  father 
in  1216.  Five  years  later,  the  youth  of  twenty  was  married  to 
Elizabeth,  then  fourteen  years  of  age.  liudwig  sympathized  with 
the  seriousness  of  his  humble,  pious  wife,  and  their  marriage  was 
a  very  happy  one.  P^lizabeth  inaugurated  an  increasingly  lavish 
exercise  of  mercy,  and  soon  became  the  refuge  of  all  the  needy  and 
suffering.  Her  charitable  activity  reached  its  climax  during  the 
prevalence  of  a  famine.  She  also  built  a  hospital  at  Eisenach,  for 
twenty-four  patients.  Her  confessor,  Conrad  of  Marburg,  then 
Grand  Inquisitor  of  Germany,  gradually  gained  great  influence 
over  her.  The  Landgrave  permitted  her,  with  reservation  of  liis 
own  rights,  to  vow  absolute  obedience  to  the  confessor.  She  be- 
gan to  subject  herself  to  severe  tortures,  which,  later  on,  Conrad 
inflicted  with  his  own  hands.  But  all  these  shadows  cannot  obscure 
the  image  of  her  exquisite  humility,  piety  and  compassion.  She 
had  three  children.  In  the  year  1227,  Ludwig  died  in  Italy,  while 
preparing  a  crusade.  When  the  tidings  reached  her,  Eliza!)eth 
exclaimed  :  "Dead  is  to  me  also  the  world,  with  its  joys  and  j)leas- 
ures."  Much  trouble  was  in  store  for  her.  Her  husband's  brother, 
Henry  Raspe,  seized  upon  the  sovereignty,  and  banished  her  and 
her  children.  Fear  of  the  usurper  made  her  everywhere  unwel- 
come, and  she  wandered  about  in  great  poverty,  until  her  brother- 
in-law,  at  her  petition,  granted  her  the  castle  of  Marburg  on  the 
Lahn  as  her  widow's  seat  and  property.  Here  she  lived  from 
1229  to  1231,  wearing  the  gray  habit  of  a  Tertiary  Sister.  She  oc- 
cupied a  humble  cottage,  and  with  her  own  means  founded  an 
almshouse  and  hospital  in  Marburg.  Urged  by  Conrad,  she  parted 
from  her  children,  and  became  a  model  of  the  severest  self-mortifl- 
cation  and  austerity.  As  early  as  1235,  she  was  canonized,  and  a 
splendid  church  was  erected  to  her  memory.  This  pro\es,  how 
deeply  the  public  sentiment  was  touched  by  such  unreserved  sur- 
render and  devoted  following  of  Christ's  example.  Even  though 
many  features  of  her  piety  were  false  and  exaggerated,  the  motive 
wascertainly  genuine, — the  faith  and  the  love,  the  humility,  and  the 
longing  wholly  to  yield  herself  to  Chiist,  and  to  serve  Him  among 
His  lowliest  members.  Such  an  example  could  not  fail  to  And 
followers.  St.  Elizabeth  therefore  belongs  to  the  history  of  the 
female  diaconate,  although  she  had  no  idea  of  a  deaconess  office. 
She  marks  the  beginning  of  a  period,  from  which  we  may   practi- 


—  37  — 

cally  date  a  re-organization  of  the  life  of  christian  womanhood, 
and  of  woman's  service  in  the  Church.  That  this  period  had  in 
fact  arrived,  is  proven  by  the  establishment  of  the  Beguine  Houses. 
44.  At  Liege,  in  Belgium,  there  lived  a  priest,  named  Lam- 
bert, and  surnamed  "le  begue",  the  stammerer.  He  preached  forcibly 
against  the  moral  depravity  of  the  age,  to  which  the  clergy  fre- 
quently granted  immunity.  He  owned  a  small  garden  outside  of 
the  city,  where  he  built  a  number  of  little  houses,  in  the  midst  of 
Avhich,  in  1184,  a  church  was  erected,  and  consecrated  to  St. 
Christopher.  The  whole  establishment  was  given  over  to  a  com- 
munity of  pious  women.  After  many  persecutions,  suffered  be- 
cause of  his  preaching,  he  died  in  1187,  and  is  said  to  have  been 
buried  under  the  high-altar  of  St.  Christopher's.  It  has  of  late 
been  questioned,  whether  the  name  and  origin  of  the  B^guine 
Houses  are  really  to  Ijc  traced  to  him.  At  all  events,  during  the 
12th  and  13th  centuries,  these  houses  greatly  multiplied  through- 
out Belgium  and  the  Netherlands  ;  southward,  along  the  Rhine, 
and  also  in  France  and  Italy.  In  Germany  they  do  not  seem  to 
have  extended  farther  northward  than  Hamburg.  The  crusades 
made  many  widows ;  these,  and  many  unmarried  women  sought 
refuge  in  religious  communities.  In  many  cases  they  took  the 
vows  of  obedience  and  chastity,  without  binding  themselves  for 
life.  The  novel  feature  of  this  period  is,  that  such  a  free  form  of  con- 
vent life  had  become  safe  for  women.  The  Beguines  lived  separately 
in  small  houses  built  closely  together,  their  doors  marked  with  a 
cross.  Often  such  houses  formed  an  extensive  colony,  placed 
under  the  superintendency  of  a  priest,  who  was  assisted  by 
a  "matron".  The  Sisters  at  first  wore  no  distinctive  dress,  but  later 
on  a  brown,  bluish-gray  or  black  habit  and  a  veil,  were  worn. 
Some  Begnine  Institutions  were  obliged  to  earn  their  own  support, 
— others  were  wealthy.  In  addition  to  handiwork  of  all  kinds, 
they  were  employed  in  the  instruction  of  little  children  ;  in  nurs- 
ing the  sick,  for  whom  they  frequently  founded  their  own  hospitals  ; 
in  the  dressing  of  the  dead  ;  as  peace-makers  in  quarrels,  and  in 
rendering  such  assistance  as  they  were  able,  to  the  priests  in  their 
pastoral  work.  Their  church-life  w^as  zealous  and  earnest.  Dur- 
ing the  period  of  their  highest  development,  they  accomplished  a 
vast  amount  of  good.  They  were  permitted  to  separate  from  the 
community  in  order  to  marry,  and  retained  the  use  of  their  property. 
Their  manner  of  living  was  free  from  the  rigid  asceticism,  which 
often  governed  the  convents.  A  considerable  resemblance  between 
them  and  the  diaconate  of  our  day  is  unmistakable  ;  with  this  ex- 
ception however,  that  the  associative,  religious  life  and  conventual 
contemplativeness  are  not  with  the  deaconesses,  as  they  were  with 
the  Beguines,  the  foremost  object  in  the  formation  of  the  Sisterhood. 
To  the  Beguine  Houses  corresponded  similar  coummunities  of  men, 


—  38  — 

who  were  called  lioghards.  In  tlie  course  of"  time,  the  I^ogiiine 
IIoiisi  s  became  the  ohjoets  of  suspicion  and  ])erseciiti(>ii.  The 
nuiHi'i'ies  cast  envious  eves  upon  tlieir  prosjx'rity  ;  an<l  the  age 
Avas  such,  that  the  Beguines  tliemselves  could  not  withstand  the 
prevalent  religions  demoralization.  Laziness,  mendicancy  and  un- 
ruly behavior  aj)peared  among  them  ;  they  gave  themselves  uj)  to 
great  spiritual  pride  ;  and  all  manner  of"  heresies  and  peculiar 
notions  found  a  ready  entrance  in  the  secluded  houses.  It  is  easy 
therefore,  to  understand  the  disfavor  in  which  these  conunuuities 
were  held  by  the  j)opes.  In  the  Netherlands  they  accepted  the 
Kcformation,  and  have  continued  to  the  present  time, — but  their 
numbers  are  fast  diminishing.  If  we  ask  why  they  repeatedly  be- 
came the  objects  of  frequent  and  severe  ecclesiastical  censure, 
it  is  certain  that  the  preponderance  of  the  meditative  life,  as  well 
as  the  lack  of  discipline,  were  the  causes  of  their  decay.  Yet  a 
strong,  wholesome  leaven  must  have  dwelt  within  these  com- 
munities, otherwise  they  would  not  have  enjoyed  so  prolonged  an 
existence. 

4').  To  the  improvement  of  morals,  without  which  the  Be- 
guine  communities  would  have  been  im[)ossil)le,  was  added,  in  the 
14th  and  loth  century,  a  reformatory  tendency.  A  new,  spiritual 
life  seized  upon  many  souls,  and  formed  a  strong  contrast  to  the 
misrule  and  corruption,  Avhich  everywhere,  in  the  convents,  among 
the  clergy  and  congregations,  made  itself  felt.  This  movement  also 
led  to  a  renewal  of  woman's  churchly  life,  with  which  the  Beguinc 
Houses  were  undoubtedly  connected.  Again  it  is  the  Netherlands, 
to  which  attention  is  directed.  In  1840  there  lived  at  Deventer  a 
priest,  Gerard  Groot.  After  experiencing  a  thorough  conversion,  he 
sought,  by  the  austerity  of  his  life  and  by  his  jjreaching,  to  awaken 
a  desire  for  holiness  and  discipline.  He  too  had  to  endure  much 
hatred  and  persecution,  especiall}'  from  the  w^orldly-minded  clergy. 
His  life-work  was  continued  in  a  brotherhood,  to  which  was  after- 
wards added  a  sisterhood.  Like  the  B6guines,  the  "Sisters  of  Com- 
mon Life",  took  no  life-long  vows.  They  differed  from  the  former, 
in  that  a  less  degree  of  independence  in  the  conduct  of  their  own  life, 
was  permitted  to  the  individual  Sisters.  They  had  home  and  purse 
in  common,  supported  themselves  by  handiwork  and  teaching,  and 
also  engaged  in  sick-nursing.  Obedience,  humility  and  kindliness 
were  the  virtues  they  aimed  at.  Sometimes  their  numbers  Avere 
very  large,  and  during  the  first  half  of  the  fifteenth  century  they 
had  eighty-seven  houses,  which  Avere  governed  by  rectors.  The 
book  "Of  the  Imitation  of  Christ",  Avhose  author  is  Thomas  a 
Kempis,  bears  Avitness  to  the  spirit  in  Avhich  the  Sisters  vieAved  the 
associated  life.  This  little  book  has  come  to  us  from  one  of  these 
communities. 

The  Brigittine  order,  Avhich  originated  in  Sweden,  seems,  in 


-    39  — 

the  beginning  at  least,  to  have  had  some  affinity   with    the  Sister- 
liood  of  the  Common  Life.     Bridget,  the  daughter  of  a  prominent 
Swedish  official,  was  born   in  tlie  year   1302,   and  grew  up  amid 
surroundings  of  varied  mental  and  spiritual  culture.     8he  was  ex- 
ceedingly  gifted, — worldly-wise    and     strong-willed,    poetic    and 
enthusiastic.     From    her    eighth  year,  she  fancied   that  she  saw- 
visions,  and  heard  the  voice  ot  the  Lord,  whose  death  npon  the 
cross  moved  her  deeply.    She  married  ;  became  the  mother  of  eight 
children  ;  was  for  a  time  grand  mistress  of  the  royal  conrt  ;    made 
numerous  pilgrimages  with  her  husband,  one  of  Avhich  extended  to 
Italy  ;  and,  after  she  became  a  widow,  lived  in  a  convent,  without 
taking  the  vows.  She  was  very  learned, and  revered  as  a  prophetess 
by  tlie  people.     Her  favorite  wish    Avas  to  found  an  order  for  the 
renewal    of  the  -Scandinavian   Church.      The  king  aided  her    in 
her    undertaking.     A  convent  was  established  at  Vadstena,  and 
Bridget's  daughter  became  its  first  abbess.     The  rules  of  the  order 
Bridget  fancied  she  had  received  from  the  Lord  Himself,  and  she 
obtained  their  confirmation  in  Rome,   whither  she  journeyed  with 
her  son  and  daughter.     She  afterwards  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Jeru- 
salem, and  on  her  return  died  at  Rome,   with   the  words  :    "Lord 
Jesus,  unto  Thee  I  commend  my  spirit."     The  order   founded  by 
her  sought  to  promote  popular  ])reaehing,  education,   and  pastoral 
care  of  souls ;  it  also  endeavored  to  exert  an  iniiuence  by  means  of 
devotional  books,  among  others,   by  the  translation   of  the  Holy 
Scriptures.     The  order,  which  also  included  monks,  enjoyed  great 
prosperity,  which  was  followed  by  a  speedy  decline.     The   Brigit- 
tines  were  indeed  nuns,  but  their  characteristic  feature  was,  that 
their  communities  recognized  it  as  their  prime  object,  to  exert  an  in- 
fluence upon  the  christian   people.     The  attempt  is  scarcely  to  be 
considered  successful,  the  usual  style  of  convent  life  soon  becom- 
ing predominant.     But  in  itself  the  undertaking  was  significant  of 
the  spirit  of  the  time.     Xeither  the  Beguines  nor  the  Sisters  of  the 
Common  Life,  so  decidedly  as  Bridget,   claimed  general  influence 
as  the  object  of  their  associated  life. 

It  is  noticeable  that  the  reformatory  current,  returning,  more 
directly  than  was  usual  in  the  Church,  to  the  word  of  God,  became 
a  power  in  shaping  woman's  life  in  the  direction  of  her  cooperation 
in  the  Avork  of  the  Church.  We  meet  with  germs  and  seeds,  for 
whose  continued  growth  the  soil  was  as  yet  not  sufficiently  prepared. 
The  Church  before  the  Reformation  is  the  Catholic  Church,  from 
which  the  reforming  element  has  not  yet  separated  itself,  and  Avhich 
therefore,  in  virtue  of  that  element,  is  justly  claimed  by  Protestants 
as  well  as  by  Romanists. 

46.  Let  us  cast  a  glance  backwards.  Monasticism  and  the 
hierarchy  had  undone  the  diaconate  of  the  early  Church.  Yet  it 
bore  within  itself  the  seeds  of  destruction,   lacking  as  it  did,  the 


—  40  — 

ability  to  renew  itself  in  conformity  with  new  requirements.  It 
h;ul  swerved  from  the  line  of  healthy  development.  Its  chief 
streniith  lay,  not  where  alone  it  must  lie,  in  the  exercise  of  mercy, 
and  in  the  various  manifestations  of  womanly  charity  (antilepsis). 
The  })astoral  office,  however  jealously  it  guards  its  rights,  will 
scarcely,  in  a  rightly  constituted  diaconate,  see  competition,  but 
rather  an  important  auxiliary.  As  the  conditions  then  were,  the 
deaconess  cause  of  the  eai'ly  Church  went  to  ruin.  The  striving 
after  christian  perfection  insisted  upon  renunciation,  rather  than 
upon  the  exercise  of  holy  charity  ;  although  it  would  seem  obvious 
that  asceticism  and  renunciation  of  the  world  woidd  include  the 
exercise  of  mercy,  as  the  healthiest  of  all  means  for  the  subduing  of 
the  uriregenerate  man.  Hereto  was  added  the  growing  insecurity 
of  public  affairs,  during  the  agitated  periods  attending  the  decay 
of  the  ancient  culture  and  the  opening  of  a  new  era.  We  have 
seen  that,  as  soon  as  the  times  and  manners  improved,  new  begin- 
nings of  woman's  churchly  activity  appeared.  And  now  indeed  its 
final  direction  was  given  it,  which  could  be  no  other  than  the  care 
of  the  sick  and  the  helpless  of  every  description.  Under  the  breath- 
ing of  the  reforming  spirit,  the  narrow  sphere  of  woman's  conven- 
tual life  was  broadened,  and  it  became  the  sheltering  home  of  mi- 
nistering, merciful  love.  It  is  significant  that,  simultaneously  with 
the  Sisters  of  the  Common  Life,  an  association  was  organized,  solely 
devoted  to  the  nursing  of  sick  women.  It  was  a  society  of  Ter- 
tiarian  women,  established  in  1395,  at  Foligno,  which  did  not  how- 
ever acquire  a  very  wide-spread  popularity.  Its  members  were 
known  as  Daughters,  or  Sisters  of  Mercy  ;  they  also  called  them- 
selves after  St.  Elizabeth.  Thus  we  see,  that  primarily  in  the 
Church  of  Rome  the  transformation  has  been  accomplished,  which 
was  a  condition  of  the  renewal  of  woman's  ministry.  Neverthe- 
less, two  hundred  years  again  elapsed,  before  this  Church  had  per- 
fected that  form  of  woman's  churchly  activity,  which,  in  its  essential 
features,  exists  to  this  day.  It  is  possible  that  the  negative  attitude 
of  the  reformation  exerted  an  obstructing  influence,.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  reformatory  spirit,  even  where  it  did  not  cause  the 
Church,  in  repentance  and  change  of  life  to  submit  itself  to  the 
Word  of  God,  and  renew  its  conduct  and  doctrine,  yet  every  where 
called  forth  an  increased  vitality.  The  great  means  of  power, 
which  the  Romish  Church  possesses  in  her  orders  and  organiza- 
tion, at  the  given  time  placed  themselves  at  the  service  of  practi- 
cal endeavor ;  and  this  Church  has  ever  understood  how  to  utilize 
whatever  the  period  offered,  for  her  purposes.  Without  doubt,  the 
form  which  Romanism  has  adopted  for  woman's  public  churchly 
ministry,  is  a  pattern  for  all  times.  It  is  the  form  of  the  close  com- 
munity, without  cloistral  seclusion,  which  grants  to  unmarried 
women    protection,    a  freedom  sufficient  to  employ  her  abundant 


—  41  — 

gifts  in  the  service  of  humanity.  In  making  this  statement,  it  is 
needless  to  emphasize,  that  Ave  by  no  means  agree  with  the  spirit 
which  in  the  Romish  Church  penetrates  the  form  and  essence  of 
woman's  ministry,  shaping  and  controlling  its  details. 

47.  Vincent  de  Paul,  the  founder  of  the  Romish  order  of  the 
Sisters  of  Mercy,  is  among  the  most  remarkable  personages  in  the 
Church-history  of  all  times.  The  son  ot  a  peasant,  he  was  born  on 
April  24,  1576,  at  Pony  in  Gascony,  and  at  the  age  of  twelve  was 
placed  with  the  Franciscan  monks  for  instruction.  He  studied  at 
Toulouse  and  took  holy  orders.  His  inclination  to  self-sacrificing 
works  of  mercy  early  became  apparent.  An  inheritance  coming  to 
him,  he  at  once  gave  three-fourths  of  it  to  the  man  who  paid  him  the 
sum,  and  who  was  in  need  of  money.  When  he  was  captured  by 
pirates  and  carried  as  a  slave  to  Tunis,  he  by  his  conduct  prevailed 
upon  his  master,  a  renegade,  to  return  to  the  Christian  faith.  The 
hearts  of  high  and  low  inclined  to  him.  He  went  to  Rome  and  to 
Paris.  He  became  court-preacher  to  the  Queen;  then  parish- 
priest  ;  afterwards  tutor  in  a  noble  family,  and  again  parish-priest. 
He  fell  into  doubts,  which  he  overcame ;  and  in  all  the  vicissitudes 
of  his  life  continued  always  the  same,  a  man  in  whom  the  love  of 
Jesus  was  noticeable  in  a  rare  degree.  After  he  had  vowed  to  the 
Saviour  to  devote  his  life  to  the  service  of  the  poor,  he  developed 
an  ever  increasing  activity  in  this  direction.  The  familv  of  the 
Count  of  Gondy,  of  great  wealth  and  piety,  whose  son  he  had  edu- 
cated, aided  him  in  his  labors.  Abundant  means  flowed  into  his 
treasury,  and  many  souls  were  awakened.  When  one  dav  in  the 
pulpit,  he  asked  assistance  for  a  poor  family,  money  was  offered  in 
such  abundance,  that  it  became  necessary  to  introduce  some  sort  of 
system  in  its  distribution.  He  then  founded  an  association  of  wo- 
men for  personal,  continuous  care  of  the  poor, — a  sort  of  Women's 
Society  (confrerie  de  la  charite).  Associations  of  this  description 
quickly  multiplied.  Vincent  concerned  himself  especiallv  with  the 
prisoners  and  galley  slaves,  for  the  sake  of  one  of  whom,  it  is  said 
he  once  allowed  himself  to  be  put  in  irons  as  a  prisoner.  He  also 
waged  an.  effectual  war  against  mendicancy.  For  pastoral  work 
among  the  poor  and  humble,  he  founded  a  society,  the  ''mission- 
priests",  in  whose  training  and  guidance  he  demonstrated  his  own 
eminent,  practical  gifts,  himself  ever  the  most  humble  and  self- 
denying  of  them  all.  His  influence  grew  equally  in  times  of  war 
and  peace,  extending  to  ever  wider  circles.  He  died  on  September 
27,  1660,  and  seventy-seven  years  later  was  canonized  bv  the  pope. 
His  most  famous  and  influential  foundation  was  that  of  the  order 
of  the  Sisters  of  Mercy. 

It  very  soon  showed  itself,  that  the  women's  associations  were 
not  able  to  carry  on  a  really  thorough  and  systematic  oversight  of 
the  poor  and  destitute,  although — or  perhaps  because — it  had  be- 


—  42   — 

came  the  i'ashion,  to  engai^re  in  these  duties.  Many  an  enthusiastic 
beiiinniiiii;  liad  jn'oved  but  a  ilanie  of  straw;  and  many  a  hij^h-born 
ladv  soon  loft  the  exercise  of  her  cliaritable  duties  to  her  maid. 
Vincent  perceived  tliat  what  was  chiefly  needed,  was  not  hirge 
numbers  of  women,  l)ut  rather  the  absohite  self-surrender  of  indi- 
viduals. The  [)ious  widow  of  Count  Legras  had  for  some  time 
devoted  herself  to  the  care  of  the  poor,  to  whom  she  brouj^ht 
bodilv  help  and  spiritual  comfort.  Vincent  made  her  acquain- 
tance, and,  after  proving  her  ability,  induced  her  to  become  the 
su])erior  of  a  sisterhood  (1625).  This  sisterhood  was  confirmed  in 
1G3;>  by  the  arch-bishop  of  Paris;  and  its  members,  called  from 
their  dress,  the  "grey  Sisters"  (soeurs  grises)  soon  s])read  over 
many  towns  of  France  and  other  countries.  According  to  the  rules 
laid  down  bv  Vincent  himself,  the  Sisters  were  to  see  in  every  suf- 
ferer the  Saviour  Himself  They  must  rise  at  four  in  the  morn- 
ino-  twice  each  dav  engage  in  silent  prayer,  render  willing  service 
to  "those  alflicted  with  loathsome  diseases,  and  submit  with  uncon- 
ditional obedience  to  their  superiors.  They  were  not  to  be  nuns, 
nor  bound  by  life-long  vows ;  but  after  a  five  years'  probation, 
were  to  take  a  vow  of  obedience,  to  be  renewed  each  year.  They 
were  to  come  and  go,  wherever  they  were  needed.  The  hospitals 
were  to  be  their  convents;  the  sick-wards  their  cells;  their  chai)el, 
the  parish-church ;  their  cloisters,  the  streets  of  the  town  ;  their 
vow  obedience  ;  their  grille,  the  fear  of  God  ;  their  veil,  holy  mo- 
desty. 

48.  According  to  the  rule  of  the  order  established  by  Vincent, 
the  Sisters  of  Mercy  remind  us  in  many  respects  of  the  diaconate 
of  the  early  Church,  in  so  far  as  the  latter  numbered  among  its  du- 
ties the  exercise  of  mercy.  The  rules,  however,  did  not  remain  as 
orio-inally  made,  but  were  altered  in  later  times,  to  conform  with 
the'^monastic  ideal.  A  rule  of  the  order,  approved  in  our  century 
by  the  pope,  provides  that  the  Sisters  shall  rise  daily  at  four, — on 
one  day  of  the  week  an  hour  later.  At  half  past  four,  morning 
prayer  is  said.  From  four  to  seven,  from  eleven  to  twelve,  from 
two  to  three,  and  from  eight  in  the  evening,  the  Sisters  observe  a  holy 
silence  amono-  themselves.  The  day  begins  with  the  hearing  of  mass ; 
then  follows*^  breakfast,  after  wliieh  each  one  goes  to  her  work. 
At  half-past  eleven  is  self-examination.  At  noon  they  dine,  three 
quarters  of  an  hour  being  allowed  for  this  meal,  during  which,  and 
also  durino-  supper,  one  of  them  reads  aloud  from  an  edifiying  book. 
At  two  there  is  a  short  lecture,  at  three  adoration  of  the  cross ;  at 
half-past  four,  evening  meditation  and  self-examination,  at  five, 
supper.  This  rule,  given  for  a  certain  diocese,  probably  does  not 
apply  in  all  its  particulars,  to  the  entire  order,  although  similar 
directions  are  everywhere  in  force.  It  is  difficult  to  understand; 
how  the  Sisters,with  such  cutting  up  of  their  time,  can  accomplish 


—  48  — 

nuich.     Yet  they  have  devolo})edan  activity,  which  is  truly  surpris- 
ing.    The  power  of  adaptability,  peculiar  to  the   Romish  Church 
is  no  doubt,  in  a  high  degree  ])eculiar  also  to  this  order. 

Vincent  lived  to  see  his  sisterhood  possess  m  Paris  alone  28 
Houses.  The  growth  of  the  order  has  subsequently  progressed  in 
a  similar  manner.  Its  importance,  notably  in  France,  cannot  be 
overestimated.  In  that  country,  the  care  of  the  sick  underwent  a 
complete  revolution.  Even  a  scoffer  like  Voltaire  was  obliged  to 
confess,  that  nothing  on  earth  was  greater  than  the  sacrifice  of  phy- 
sical advantages,  youth  and  olten  noble  birth,  made  by  the  weaker 
sex,  for  the  sake  of  relieving  human  misery,  the  sight  of  which 
is  so  humiliating  to  our  pride,  so  offensive  to  our  luxurious  senses. 
Nevertheless,  during  the  French  revolution,  a  persecution  broke 
out  against  the  order.  The  Sisters  were  made  to  endure  tortures 
of  every  kind,  di^honor,  and  inexpressil)le  brutality.  Some  were 
beaten  to  death  amid  the  jubilations  of  the  populace.  The  order 
was  entirely  abolished;  and  in  consequence,  the  hospitals  became 
scenes  of  revolting  lawlessness.  This  continued,  until  Bonaparte 
restored  order,  and  in  1808,  at  his  mother's  suggestion,  again 
placed  the  order  in  possession  of  all  its  rights.  At  present,  the 
activity  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Sisters  engaged  in  the  service  of 
mercy,  is  more  ^yide-spread  than  ever.  There  exist,  in  Roman 
Catholic  countries,  more  or  less  independent  branches  of  the  order, 
among  them  some,  whose  members  are  not  permanently  bound  by 
vows  of  any  sort,  as  the  Ladies  of  Mount  Calvary,  a  society  of 
widows,  devoted  to  the  care  of  the  sick.  Convent  rules  predominate. 
Various  female  orders,  as  the  Franciscans,  have,  after  the  example 
of  the  Vincentines,  included  the  care  of  the  sick  and  destitute 
among  their  duties,  and  furnish  a  large  contingent  of  workers.  A 
prominent  community  of  Sisters,  Avhich  has  great  influence  in 
Germany  also,  is  that  of  the  Sisters  of  St.  Charles  at  Nancy,  named 
in  honor  of  St.  Charles  Borromeo.  A  German  sisterhood  ot  this 
order  has  existed  in  Westphalia  since  1808,  and  was  founded  by 
Droste  Vischering,  the  Archbishop  of  Cologne.  Approximate  sta- 
tistics place  the  present  number  of  Vincentines  at  28,000  ;  of  Fran- 
ciscan nursing  Sisters  at  22,000  ;  the  Sisters  of  the  Holy  Cross  at 
6000  ;  the  Sisters  of  St.  Charles  at  5000  ;— more  than  60,000  Sis- 
ters thus  being  at  the  disposal  of  the  Romish  Church  in  the  service 
of  mercy. 

49.  The  fields  of  labor  of  the  Sisters  of  Mercy  and  kindred 
orders  are  the  care  of  the  poor  and  sick,  and  the  instruction  and 
training  of  little  children  and  young  girls.  Certain  orders 
include  both  branches,  others  devote  themselves  to  either  one  or 
the  other. 

A  short  sketcliof  the  order  of  the  Charles-Sisters,  whose  Mother- 
house  is  at  Nancy,  will  serve  to  acquaint  us  with   their  manner  of 


—  44  — 

living  and  working.  Tho  order  is  under  the  superintendency  of*  a 
Sister  Superior  General,  elected  for  three  years,  of  a  Vice-Superior, 
a  Procuratress,  a  Mistress  of  Novices,  and  a  pastor  aj)poiuted  by 
the  bishop.  The  following  persons  are  excluded  from  admission 
as  j)o»tulants  or  probationers  of  the  order  :  Widows,  divorced  wo- 
men, women  in  weak  health,  orphans  without  property,  girls  who 
have  been  supported  from  the  poor-fund,  the  children  of  humble 
parents,  and  girls  who  haxe  been  servants.  The  age  for  admis- 
sion is  not  under  eighteen,  nor  over  twenty-four  years.  These 
are  under  the  immediate  control  of  the  Mistress  of  Novices,  and  be- 
sides the  cap,  wear  no  distinctive  dress  Their  fare  is  meager, 
and  the  discipline  to  which  they  are  subjected,  is  very  harsh,  in 
order  to  quench  any  false  enthusiasm  and  exaggerated  expectations. 
Such  duties  especially  are  assigned  to  them,  as  cause  horror  or 
loathing,  and  no  relief  or  relaxation  is  permitted.  Those  who  are 
found  worthy,  are  admitted  as  novices,  wear  the  habit  of  the  order 
and  a  white  veil,  and  receive  practical  training  in  the  stations  out- 
side of  the  Motherhouse.  In  the  third  year  of  their  novitiate  they 
return  to  the  Motherhouse,  and  it  is  decided,  whether  they  shall 
remain.  It  is  said  that  out  of  a  hundred  novices,  as  a  rule  only 
twenty-five  are  received  into  the  order. 

Those  about  to  be  received,  must  in  addition,  make  consider- 
able pecuniary  sacrifices,  first  as  postulants  and  novices,  and  finally 
on  the  occasion  of  their  consecration,  which  demands  at  least  1000 
francs,  while  frequently  very  large  sums  are  paid  over  to  the 
order.  These  moneys  furnish  the  order  with  the  means  to  carry 
on  its  work  among  the  poor,  the  sick,  and  the  little  children.  In 
spite  of  the  difficulties  attending  admission,  the  applications  are 
said  to  be  very  numerous.  The  consecrated  Sisters  wear  a  black 
veil.  They  take  the  convent  vows  before  the  bishop  or  his  vicar, 
and,  according  to  the  views  of  their  Church,  are  bound  for  life. 
The  civil  law  permits  an  obligation  for  five  years  only,  but  this 
immunity  is  rarely  claimed.  Besides  the  veil,  the  Sisters  receive 
a  ring  and  a  consecrated  medal.  They  are  passive  instruments  in 
the  hands  of  their  superiors.  Sometimes  they  are  recalled  to  the 
Motherhouse,  and  labor  in  its  branch  institutions ;  in  the  St.  Char- 
les hospital,  with  beds  for  two  hundred  patients ;  in  St.  Julien, 
where  orphans  are  educated,  and  three  hundred  old  and  infirm  per- 
sons are  gratuitously  cared  for;  in  the  Foundling  Asylum,  Avith 
four  hundred  children,  who  remain  until  the  age  of  sixteen  or 
eighteen  under  the  supervision  of  the  Sisters;  in  the  asylum  for 
four  to  five  hundred  invalids,  whose  ailments  exclude  them  from 
the  hospital ;  in  the  Almshouse  and  parish ;  in  the  Insane  Asylum 
with  five  hundred  patients,  who  are  received  at  a  nominal  price. 
The  activity  of  the  order  is  enormous.  We  cannot  calculate  the 
influence  exerted  by  one  sisterhood  like  that  of  St.  Charles ;  and  what 


—  45  - 

can  not  be  the  result  of  the  combined  activity  of"  the  Roman 
Catholic  female  orders. 

The  Sisters  of  Mercy  are  the  pioneers  of  Roman  C'atholic  mis- 
sion-work among-  the  Protestants,  as  well  as  ainoni^;  Mohammedans 
and  heathens.  They  know  how  to  gain,  in  a  high  degree,  the  con- 
fidence of  all  classes,  and  command  for  every  kind  of  work  the 
most  suitable  persons.  Within  their  own  Church  also,  the  impor- 
tance of  their  Avork  is  very  great.  By  their  care  of  the  poor  and 
sick  they  serve  the  general  good  ;  by  their  edu(>ational  activity  they 
exert  a  wide-spread  influence,  especially  among  women  of  the 
higher  classes. — The  order  of  the  Sisters  of  the  Most  Sacred  Heart 
of  Jesus  was  established  about  the  year  1800.  The  founder. 
Mother  Barat,  lived  to  see  her  sisterhood,  principally  devoted  to 
the  education  of  young  girls  of  the  higher  classes,  numbering 
before  her  death,  3500  memliers,  with  seventy  convents  in  al- 
most every  civilized  country.  We  can  readily  understand  the  at- 
tention given  by  the  pope  and  the  highest  circles  of  the  Romish 
Church,  to  an  order  of  this  description.  Indeed,  we  of  the  Prote- 
stant faith  can  only  feel  deeply  shamed,  when  we  see  how  among 
the  Romanists,  high  and  low  seem  equally  to  realize  the  value  of 
woman's  co-operation  in  the  service  of  the  Church.  Bavaria  alone, 
a  small  Roman  Catholic  kingdom,  is  said  to  have  as  many  nuns, 
as  the  entire  Protestant  Church  has  deaconesses.  .  To  be  sure, 
forces  are  there  enlisted,  whith  which  it  is  impossible  to  compete 
upon  Protestant  soil;  and  this  must  not  be  overlooked  in  our 
estimate  of  the  above  facts. 

50.  In  the  Romish  Church,  the  Kingdom  of  Christ  has  be- 
come, what  it  avowedly  desires  not  to  be, — a  kingdom  of  this  world, 
a  political  power  of  the  first  rank.  This  position  has  been  attained 
by  adaptation  to  the  pagan  under-current  in  the  life  of  man- 
kind, and  by  the  perversion  of  the  Gospel  of  Grace  into  a  more  or 
less  refined  work-righteousnes.'-.  Woman's  ministry  in  the  Romish 
Church  also  bears  this  impress.  The  vow  of  the  Romish  Sister,  to 
follow  the  so-called  evangelical  counsels, — that  is,  to  remain  un- 
married for  life,  to  live  in  poverty,  and  to  yield  unconditional 
obedience  to  her  superiors,  is  a  yoke,  which  it  would  be  permissible 
to  lay  upon  others,  or  to  take  upon  ourselves,  only  if  God's  Word 
expressly  directed  it. 

But  it  is  absolutely  contrary  to  the  Word  of  God,  that  a 
human  being  should  thus  arl)itrarily  dispose  of  himself  or  others. 
The  Romish  Church  teaches,  that  a  person,  by  following  these 
counsels,  acquires  a  higher  degree  of  perfection ;  that  in  addition  to 
the  crown  of  life,  he  gains  for  himself  a  S])ecial  little  crown,  and  is 
moreover  able  to  l>e  useful  and  serviceable  ta  relatives  and  friends 
in  the  matter  of  their  salvation.  It  is  obvious,  how  great  a  tem- 
poral power  lies  in  such  a  binding  of  consciences,   as  is   thus   prac- 


—  4<)  — 

tised  by  these  orders  uj)<»n  tlieir  nienibers.  Of  tliis  tliov  are  liilly 
aware,  and  ^lory  in  it,  over  against  Protestants.  It  is  no  less  clear 
that,  as  the  natural  man  is  constituted,  thousands  are  enticed  by 
the  allurements  of  work-righteousness,  whose  ears  are  deaf  to  the 
Gospel  of  Grace. 

An  inscription  on  the  grave-stone  of  a  Sister  of  Mercy  in  the 
Zillcrthal  testifies  to  the  fact,  and  whosoever  will  ask  these  iSisters, 
will  hear  it  corroborated,  how  deeply  the  thought  of  an  expected 
eternal  reward  penetrates  their  service.  No  proof  is  needed,  to  con- 
vince us,  that  faith,  bound  in  the  ^A'ord  of  God,  cannot,  in  a  Avorldly 
sense,  equal  this.  And  yet  it  is  faith  alone,  built  upon  the  foun- 
dation of  the  pure  Word  and  Sacrament,  which  ])ossesses  the  ])ower 
to  animate  with  a  true  purpose  the  outward  and  modern  form  of 
woman's  churchly  ministry,  whicli  in  its  principal  features  origin- 
ated in  the  Catholic  Church  previous  to  the  Reformation.  A  re- 
newal of  the  female  diaconate  in  the  spirit  and  in  truth,  was  not 
possible  upon  Romisli,  but  only  upon  Protestant  soil. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

Th£  Protestant  Renewal  of  the  Female  Diaconate. 

51.  The  Reformation  of  the  Church,  Avhich  took  place  in  the 
16th  century,  was  a  return  to  the  unchanging  foundations  of  chris- 
tian doctrine  and  life.  The  sole  standard  of  christian  doctrine  is 
the  Word  of  God,  as  revealed  in  the  Holy  Scriptures.  Whatso- 
ever contradicts  this  standard,  must  perish.  The  sole  source  of 
christian  life  is  justifying  faith.  Whatsoever  does  not  flow  from 
this  source,  is  not  genuine  christian  life,  not  genuine  christian 
morality,  not  genuine  christian  service.  Wherever  that  faith 
gained  the  mastery,  Avhich  knows  no  other  doctrinal  standard,  save 
the  Word  of  God;  no  justification,  save  that  granted  by  grace  for 
Christ's  sake,  witlnmt  the  works  of  the  law, — there  the  rubbish  of 
mistaken  Romish  traditions  could  not  survive.  The  ancient  foun- 
tains of  life  gushed  forth  ;  new  life-germs  burst  their  l^uds — a 
spring-time  of  regeneration  had  come  to  the  Church. 

The  question  is  an  idle  one,  whether  the  cause  of  the  diaconate 
was  among  the  subjects  seized  by  the  reformatory  movement.  Every 
age  has  its  own  problems  to  solve,  every  individual  his  own  duties. 
Each  one  of  us  cannot  and  must  not  meddle  with  all.  Consciences 
bound  by  God's  Word  could  not  remain  strangers  to  a  subject,  to 
which' that  Word  renders  such  abundant  testimony.  But  under  the 
pressure  of  circumstances  it  might  easily  occur,  that  a  matter  like 
the  female  diaconate  did  not  for  a  long  time  enter  the  liorizon  of 
the  men,  whose  fort-most  office  and  duty  bound  them  to  the  questions 
which  were  to  determine  the  christian  and  ehiirchly  life. 

52.  Itisremarkable,  that  certain  of  the  pre-reformatory  move- 
ments proposed  the  immediate  restoration  of  the  female  diaconate 
of  the  early  Church  This  purpose  was  pursued  in  a  manner  differ- 
ing from  those  churchly  agitations,  in  which  the  breathing  of  the 
reformatory  spirit  was  felt,  and  which  led  to  a  re-organization  of 
the  associated  life,  as  for  instance  in  the  communities  of  the  Bretii- 
ren  and  Sisters  of  the  Common  Life.  For  while  here  no  rupture 
with  existing  conditions  was  contemplated,  there  was  in  the  cur- 
rents which  actually  ushered  in  the  Reformation,  a  lively  conscious- 
ness, that  without  a  radical  change,  no  genuine  renewal  of  the 
churchly  life  was  possil)le.  It  is  significant  that,  disregarding 
existing  circumstances,   it  was  here  deemed   practicable  to  return 


—  48   - 

directly  to  the  biblical  diaconate  of  tiic  early  Ciiurcii.  Hero  lay 
at  once  the  strength  and  the  weakness  of' these  attempts.  The 
WaUlensians,  the  reforming-  party  in  .Southern  France  and  Pied- 
mont, who  are  traced  back  to  Peter  Waldus,  and  became  promi- 
nent in  the  second  half  of  the  12th  century,  appointed  deaconesses 
in  their  congregations,  according  to  tiie  S('riptural  directions.  The 
same  was  the  case  among  the  Boliemian-Moravian  Brethren,  who 
in  consequence  of  the  movement  inaugurated  by  Huss,  separated 
from  the  llomish  Church.  Among  the  latter,  the  endeavor  to  con- 
struct and  order  the  churchly  life  to  conform  with  the  apostolic 
congregation,  went  hand  in  hand  with  a  deep  and  strong  grasp  of 
the  saving  faith.  Since  about  1457,  they  appointed  Parish-dea- 
conesses, in  addition  to  the  elders  of  the  congregation.  They  were 
to  constitute  a  female  council,  consisting  of  older  women,  whose 
dutv  it  was,  as  mothers  in  the  House  of  God,  to  look  after  and 
advise  the  married  women,  widows  and  young  girls.  They  were 
to  settle  disputes,  see  to  it  that  no  one  was  falsely  accused,  and 
especially,  that  chastity  and  discipline  M'ere  not  neglected.  Where 
they  saw  any  wrongdoing  or  impropriety,  they  were  to  examine 
into  it,  and  admonish  the  guilty  persons. 

These  attempts  failed  to  acquire  any  great  significance  for  the 
Church  ;  but  they  prove  the  close  connection  between  the  female 
diaconate  and  the  Reformation. 

53.  The  one  thing  needful,  in  order  that  the  service  of  Christ 
might  be  revived  in  the  Church  in  apostolic  truth  and  purity,  was 
the  liberation  of  souls  from  the  delusion  of  work-righteousness. 
Here  lies  the  chief  and  permanent  significance  of  the  work  of  the  re- 
formers also  in  behalf  of  woman's  ministry  in  the  Church.  The 
immediate  restoration  of  the  female  diaconate  did  not  lie  within 
,the  scope  of  their  activity.  All  tiie  reformers,  and  pre-eminently 
Luther  himself,  never  wearied  of  insisting,  that  "good  works  do  not 
make  a  good  man,  but  a  good  man  makes  good  works,"  whereby  the 
fallacy  of  meritorius  achievements,  the  prevalence  of  which  had 
brought  about  an  inconceivable  degree  of  despotism,  was  destroyed 
root  and  branch.  He  only  is  righteous  and  devout  in  the  sight  of 
God,  who  in  faith  possesses  Christ,  "made  unto  us  wisdom, 
and  righteousness,  and  sanctification,  and  redemption."  Only  in  so 
far  as  we  have  faitli  in  Christ,  believing  that  by  His  blood  alone  we 
are  cleansed  from  sin,  only  in  so  far  can  there  be  with  us  any 
question  of  good  works.  "Faith  is  a  living,  active,  busy,  power- 
ful thing,  working  without  ceasing." — "Faith  is  a  living,  confident 
trust  in  God's  grace, — so  certain,  that  a  thousand  deaths  could  not 
shake  it.  And  sucii  knowledge  and  confidence  in  Divine  grace, 
which  is  effected  by  the  Holy  Spirit  in  faith,  makes  us  joyful, 
fearless  and  glad  toward  God  and  all  creatures.  Thus  without 
com])ulsion,  we    become  willing  and  glad    to  do  good  to  all  men, 


—  49  — 

to  serve  all  men,  and  to  suifer  all  things  for  the  love  and  to  the 
praise  of  God,  who  has  shown  us  such  mercy  ;  therefore  it  is  im- 
possible to  separate  works  from  faith  ;  yea,  as  utterly  impossible, 
as  it  is,  to  separate  the  light  and  flame  of  the  fire." 

The  modern  female  diaconate,  wherever  it  deserves  to  be  called 
evangelical,  rests  upon  the  rock  of  these  fundamental  gospel 
truths.  Yet  this  preparatory  reformation  of  life  and  doctrine  by 
no  means  exhausts  the  influence,  especially  of  Luther,  in  this 
direction.  The  royal  spirit  of  this  prophet  of  the  Germans  pos- 
sessed the  gift,  with  a  marvellous  perception  of  the  truth,  to  grasp 
the  smallest,  as  well  as  the  greatest  matters.  Although  he  took  no 
steps  towards  organization  in  the  province  of  the  diaconate,  yet 
there  is  no  lack  of  testimony  on  his  part,  which  defines  his  posi- 
tion with  regard  to  it.  And  we  do  not  hesitate  to  attribute  to 
these  utterances  of  Luther  an  exceedingly  great  importance  for  the 
female  diaconate. 

54.  Luther,  as  was  to  be  expected,  recognized  woman's  gift  in 
the  service  of  Christian  love  and  mercy.  The  female  sex,  he  says, 
has  of  itself,  more  than  the  male,  the  inclination  to  take  pity  on  others. 
And  it  is  notably  among  devout  women,  that  this  gift  appears. 
"Women  who  love  godliness,  are  wont  to  have  especial  grace, 
wherewith  to  comfort  others,  and  relieve  their  pain."  This  remark 
refers  equally  to  the  care  of  souls  and  of  bodies.  Luther  also 
highly  appreciated  woman's  educational  gifts.  In  one  instance  he 
urged  a  parish  to  employ  female  teachers  in  its  schools  for  girls. 
Bugenhagen  also,  in  his  church-orders  for  Brimswick,  Hamburg 
and  Luebeck,  advised  the  Senates  to  employ  devout  women,  obe- 
dient to  the  Gospel,  as  teachers  for  girls.  In  all  this,  there  is  no 
word  of  deaconesses.  The  actual  deaconess  institution  remains  out- 
side of  the  horizon  of  Luther  and  his  fellow-laborers.  Yet  we 
have  cause  to  rejoice  in  this  expression  of  their  opinions.  But  we 
consider  other  remarks  of  Luther  as  still  more  important  for  the 
matter ;  these  refer  partly  to  the  diaconate  iu  general,  partly  to 
monastic  associations. 

As  regards  the  diaconate  in  general,  it  was  Luther's  wish,  that 
an  office  for  the  administration  of  church  property  be  associated 
with  the  pastoral  office.  "After  the  office  of  the  ministry,  there  is 
within  the  Church  no  higher  office,  than  this  administration,  by 
which  the  church  property  is  rightly  and  honestly  managed,  so 
that  needy  christians,  who  are  unable  to  gain  their  own  livelihood, 
may  not  suffer  want,  but  receive  assistance."  This  suggestion  of 
Luther's  was  subsequently  complied  with,  by  a  regulation  of  the 
oversight  of  tlie  poor,  which,  however,  gradually  became  mostly 
v  State  or  municipal  office,  in  more  or  less  close  connection  with 
the  Church,  or  entirely  separate  from  it.  The  election  of  the 
Seven,    (Acts    6,)  and  the    remembrance   of  the  charitable    work 


—  50  — 

of  the  Clmrcli  <tf'  all  times,  could  nut  fail  to  direct  Luther's  at- 
tention to  this  matter,  which  appeared  to  him  hoth  necessary 
and  practically  feasible.  On  the  other  hand,  he  did  not  con- 
sider a  more  comprehensive  organization  of  the  diaconate  j)()ssible  in 
his  time.  "It  were  Mell,  if  we  had  the  right  kind  of  people  to  be- 
gin it,  could  it  be  begun  in  this  manner,  that  a  city  be  divided  into 
four  or  Hve  parts,  and  to  each  ])art  be  assigned  a  pastor  and  several 
deacons,  who  would  supply  that  district  with  ])reaching  and  alms- 
giving, visit  the  sick,  and  see  to  it,  that  none  suffered  want.  But  we 
have  not  the  men  lor  it.  Therefore  I  fear  to  undertake  it,  until  our 
Lord  God  shall  make  christians."  Here  the  entire  province  of  the 
diaconate,  as  a  personal  office  of  rendering  bodily  and  s})iritual 
aid,  is  placed  beside  the  office  of  the  ministry,  to  relieve  the 
latter,  that  it  may  the  more  unhindered  give  itself  to  preaching  and 
prayer.  Had  such  an  arrangement  been  practicable,  christian 
women  would  no  doubt  have  found  their  place  in  it.  But  lAither 
did  not  venture  upon  the  undertaking ;  the  times  and  conditions 
seemed  unpropitious,  and  the  individuals  were  lacking.  His  clear, 
unprejudiced  mind  here  also  remained  true  to  itself.  But  if  the 
congregation,  as  such,  cannot  furnish  the  individuals,  the  question 
arises,  whether  they  cannot  be  found  elsewhere.  This  brings  us  to 
Luthers'  position  with  regard  to  conventual  associations. 

He  had  broken  the  spell  of  monastic  vows  and  traditions,  and 
had  recognized  that  the  whole  doctrine  of  the  evangelical  councils, 
and  the  condition  of  Christian  perfection  to  be  attained  through 
their  observance,  by  nieans  of  adherence  to  the  vows,  was  nothing 
but  "unbelief,  blasphemy  and  contempt  of  the  Gospel."  He  knew 
too,  what  a  miasma  of  immorality  and  ignorance  had  prevailed  in 
the  convents.  Thus  he  waged  war  upon  monasticism,  and  was  al- 
most inexhaustible  in  fresh  attacks.  It  was  not  the  form  of  the 
conventual  association,  which  he  combated,  but  the  false  Romish 
spirit  which  animated  that  form.  Where  God's  Word  and  the 
Gospel  are  held  supreme,  there  the  life  in  convent-form  has  Luther's 
approval,  and  he  even  acknoAvledges  that  it  may  be  of  signal  bene- 
fit to  the  Church.  In  the  year  1532,  the  Senate  of  the  City  of 
Herford  proposed  to  abolish  the  Brothers'  and  Sisters'  houses  there, 
and  compel  the  inmates  to  relinquish  their  calling  and  distinctive 
dress.  Luther  then  w^rote  to  the  Senate  :  "You  doubtless  know 
that  needless  innovations  in  divine  things  are  very  dangerous.  Now, 
inasmuch  as  these  brethren  and  sisters  lead  an  honest  life,  and 
have  an  honorable,  well-conducted  community  ;  moreover  as  they 
faithfully  honor  and  obey  the  pure  doctrine — which  they  were  the 
first  among  you  to  receive — it  is  my  friendly  petition,  that  your 
worships  will  not  jiermit  them  to  suffer  anxiety  and  bitterness  in 
this  matter,  and  will  allow  them  furthermore  to  wear  their  clerical 
habit,    and    practise   all    praiseworthy    customs,    not  contrary    to 


—  51  — 

the  Gospel,  for  such  convents  please  me  beyond  measure.  Would 
to  God,  all  convents  were  thus,  then  all  cities  and  lands  would  be 
well  served."  To  the  prior  and  reformer  of  the  Brotlier's  House 
at  Herford,  Montanus,  and  to  one  of  the  brethren,  Luther  wrote  : 
''Grace  and  peace  !  I  received  your  letter  and  Gerhard's,  and  have 
written  to  the  Senate  of  your  city  in  this  matter,  that  it  may  pro- 
tect and  defend  your  Society.  For  your  conduct  of  life,  which  is 
lived  and  taught  purely  according  to  the  Gospel  of  Christ,  pleases 
me  exceedingly,  and  I  wish  that  there  had  been,  and  were  now  more 
such  monastic  institutions.  I  dare  not  wish  much,  but  if  all  things 
were  thus,  the  Church  were  fully  blessed,  even  in  this  life.  Your 
habit  and  other  praiseworthy  customs,  heretofore  observed,  are  no 
detriment  to  the  Gospel,  but  rather  an  aid  against  the  unrestrained, 
lawless  christians  of  our  day,  who  are  well  able  to  destroy,  but  not 
to  build  up."  Luther  acknowledged  that  convent  life  afforded 
protection,  saying  that  men  like  Bernard  of  Clairvaux  did  not 
enter  the  monastery  in  order  to  become  rigliteous  and  holy, 
but  because  they  were  righteous  and  holy  before,  and  might  there 
live  apart  from  the  world.  Luther  appreciated  the  associated  life, 
because  it  permits  more  fixed  habits  of  devotion.  But  he  doubt- 
less considered  how  great  a  practical  use  it  could  have  for  the 
Church  at  large.  Yet,  after  the  experiences  heretofore  made  in  the 
convents,  he  did  not  venture  to  establish  organizations  like  those 
he  recommended  to  the  people  of  Herford.  He  probably  did  not 
think  former  monks  and  nuns  proper  material,  with  which  to  be- 
gin the  work.  They  were  not  in  his  eyes,  the  "christians,"  of 
whom  he  said  that  God  must  first  make  them,  if  the  true  diaconate 
were  to  be  arrived  at. 

Luther's  unprejudiced  appreciation  of  the  associated  life  ap- 
pears very  significant.  We  find  with  him  the  germs  of  all  the 
fundamental  views,  which  afterwards  asserted  themselves  in  the 
protestant  renewal  of  the  female  Diaconate.  In  our  day,  to  be 
sure,  an  understanding  is  often  lacking  of  the  connection  between 
these  same  fundamental  views,  and  that  which  had  become  a  mat- 
ter of  history  in  the  Church  before  the  Reformation.  It  might 
prove  profitable,  to  the  Diaconate  as  well  as  to  our  church ly  life, 
if  such  an  understanding  were  more  general. 

55.  Luther  and  the  men  of  the  Reformation  prepared  the  soil 
for  anew  growth  of  charitable  activity  within  the  Church  ;  but  they 
did  not  reach  noteworthy  practical  results  in  this  direction,  especially 
as  regards  the  female  Diaconate.  There  was  no  lack  of  women,  in 
whose  lives  the  justifying  faith  expressed  itself  in  all  its  strength 
and  beauty,  yet  the  idea  did  not  present  itself  of  a  churchly  office 
and  calling.  Little  more  was  accomplished  during  the  period  im- 
mediately following.  Some  of  the  isolated  attempts  to  re-awaken 
the  deaconess-work    were   a   continuation  of  the  pre-reformatory 


—  52  — 

movement,  while  others  were  of  a  different  character.      But   none 
of  thom  led  to  any  abidinon  results. 

The  societies  of  the  Beguines  and  of  the  Sisters  of  the  Com- 
mon Life  seem  not  to  have  been  considered  ;  the  reason  perhaps 
being,  that  it  is  much  more  difficult  to  put  new  life  into  old  and 
stiffened  forms,  than  to  create  new.  Another  and  more  probable 
reason  is,  that  these  communities  existed  for  the  greater  part  in 
countries,  where  the  influence  of  the  Swiss  reformers  Avas  predomi- 
nant. The  Reformed  Church,  in  its  anxious  dread  of  Roraanistic 
leaven,  has  in  a  great  measure  lost  its  touch  with  the  historic  past  of 
the  Church.  Its  ordinances  claiming  to  be  derived  directly  from 
the  Scriptures  frequently  transplant  to  the  present  the  conditions 
of  biblical  times  in  a  wholly  legalistic  manner.  In  regard  to  con- 
gregational organization,  it  has  gone  to  work  more  zealously,  than 
the  Lutheran  Church,  aud  in  its  congregational  orders,  the  female 
diaconate,  having  Scriptural  authority,  has  been  kept  in  view.  But 
there  was  in  most  cases  no  understanding  of  the  associated  life  in  its 
relation  to  the  old-time  convent-life,  and  therefore  no  learning  from 
the  past.  The  attempt  was  made  to  realize  the  female  Diaconate, 
as  directly  proceeding  from  the  congregational  life,  and  to  establish 
it  in  the  midst  of  the  latter.  The  consequence  was,  that  no  organiza- 
tions, with  strength  to  sustain  themselves,  were  effected.  The  fact 
was  overlooked,  as  it  frequently  is  to  this  day,  that  the  congrega- 
tions of  the  established  churches  of  our  time  are  not  to  be  compared 
with  the  congregations  of  the  apostolic  age.  The  latter,  compared 
with  the  congregations  of  our.  present  State  Churches,  would  be 
more  of  the  character  of  modern  religious  associations,  where  all 
the  members  are  personally  acquainted  with  each  other  and  held 
together  by  one  bond  of  unity  and  under  one  discipline.  If  in  the 
modern  congregation,  the  single  Christian  woman  is  publicly  to  ad- 
minister a  churchly  office,  without  sacrificing  her  womanly  delica- 
cy, without  feeling  herself  alone  and  unsupported,  she  must  be  pro- 
tected by  a  close  association,  which  yet  is  broad  enough  to  fulfill 
its  purpose.  A  man  like  Luther  would  have  understood  this  les- 
son, taught  by  experience,  had  his  attention  been  directed  to  the 
female  Diaconate,  as  such.  But  this  was  not  the  case  ;  and  the 
Lutheran  Church  did  not  advance  beyond  him  in  this  matter,  but, 
as  regards  appreciation  of  the  associated  life,  soon  failed  to  follow 
him,  and  strayed  into  the  reformed  path.  Wherever  therefore, 
after  the  Reformation,  woman's  churchly  ministry  has  been  advo- 
cated, the  appreciation  of  the  associative  form  in  its  historical  con- 
nection with  the  past  has  been  wanting, — with  a  single  exception, 
to  be  referred  to  later.  However  just  an  estimate  may  have  been 
formed,  on  the  Lutheran  side,  of  the  associative  form,  a  true,  prac- 
tical understanding  of  the  matter  was  not  reached.  Thus  the 
actual  course  of  the  matter  is  sufficiently  characterized. 


—  53  — 

56.  Among  the  Reformed,  Henry  Robert  de  la  Marck,  prince 
of  Sedan,  in  the  Netherlands, in  the  year  1560,  began  an  undertak- 
ing which,  however,  was  misunderstood  in  his  own  church,  and 
therefore  failed  to  take  root.  He  did  not  confiscate  the  property 
of  secularized  convents,  but  used  it  to  establish,  besides  otiier 
educational  and  benevolent  institutions,  a  sisterhood  of  ''Virgins  of 
Mercy."  These,  living  either  in  special  institutions,  or  in  their 
own  homes,  were  to  devote  themselves  to  the  relief  of  the  destitute, 
the  sick  and  infirm.  Rejecting  convent  vows,  they  were  yet  to  be 
bound  by  certain  rules  of  the  house  and  sisterhood.  This  attempt 
seems  to  us  the  most  important  one  made  in  this  direction.  But 
upon  the  soil  of  the  Reformed  Church,  it  appears  almost  as  the 
accidental  inspiration  of  a  thoughtful,  influential  man,  abruptly 
begun,  and  speedily  disappearing,  without  leaving  a  trace  behind. 

Quite  different  were  the  efforts,  wholly  in  accordance  with 
reformed  characteristics,  to  found  a  Diaconate  within  the  Church. 
The  General  Synod  of  the  Reformed  Church  of  the  Lower 
Rhine  and  the  Netherlands,  held  at  Wesel  in  1568,  proposed 
that  in  larger  cities,  besides  the  appointment  of  deacons  for 
the  care  of  the  poor,  "women  should  lawfully  be  won  for  this 
work."  A  later  Classis-synod,  held  at  Wesel  in  1579,  occupied 
itself  expressly  with  the  restoration  of  the  deaconess- office.  The 
question  is  asked,  in  case  it  is  found  advisable  to  restore  the  office, 
"whether  widows  only  shall  be  chosen,  or  married  women  also,  with 
the  consent  of  their  husbands  ;  whether  only  persons  of  sixty  years 
shall  be  appointed,  or  persons  under  that  age,  according  to  the 
directions  of  St.  Paul  (1.  Tim.  5).  This  question  is  to  remain  open 
until  the  next  Classis-meeting,  in  order  that  the  congregations  may 
reflect  well  upon  the  matter.  As  regards  those  who  are  already 
called,  they  shall  continue  in  their  calling,  until  such  time  as  the 
Classis  shall  have  come  to  a  decision.  If  any  desire  to  be  relieved 
of  their  office,  they  shall  be  so  relieved."  The  beginning  is  thus 
made,  without  a  strict  adherence  to  1.  Tim.  5,  which  passage  they 
understood  to  mean,  that  the  widows  there  mentioned,  were 
to  be  regarded  as  deaconesses.  In  the  resolutions  of  the  Classis 
of  1580,  it  is  said  :  "In  the  fifth  article  of  the  previous  acts  con- 
cerning the  restoration  of  the  deaconesses,  the  brethren  have  de- 
clared, that  if  this  office,  which  has  fallen  into  disuse  in  the  Church 
of  God,  be  re-established,  it  shall  be  done  as  it  was  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Church,  and  as  it  is  described  by  St.  Paul,  namely 
by  electing  widows  and  unmarried  women.  As  regards  age,  the 
brethren  are  of  opinion,  that  women  lacking  four  or  five  years 
of  sixty,  may  be  received,  provided  they  possess  the  other  quali- 
fications demanded  by  St.  Paul,  but  that  we  keep  as  near  as  pos- 
sible to  the  age  fixed  by  him.     And  the  brethren  deem  it  advisable, 


—  54  — 

that  the  coiiiiiijji;  Synod  he  rciniiKlcd,  as  to  whether  this  office  shall 
also  elsewhere  be  renewed." 

Everv  feature  of  these  resolutions  is  characteristic, — their 
leii^alistic  adherence  to  the  Scriptures,  no  less  than  the  total  al)sence 
of  all  (jucstioning,  as  to  whether  something  might  not  be  learnt  from 
the  past.  It  is  obvious,  that  no  satisfactory  progress  was  made  in 
this  wav.  At  first,  widows  and  married  women  were  chosen  by 
ballot  These  were  entirely  de|)endent  in  their  activity,  upon  the 
deacons,  and  seem  to  have  been  elected  for  one  year  only.  Soon 
afterwards,  the  election  of  married  women  was  recognized  as  un- 
biblical.  But  it  would  soon  have  come  to  nothing  if  their  labors 
had  been  at  all  arduous.  The  duties  of  these  women  however  seem 
to  have  been  very  limited ;  indeed,  the  entire  enterprise  was  of 
small  value.  Later  on,  the  circumstance  that  the  prescribed  age 
of  sixty  vears  was  not  adhered  to,  caused  difficulties.  Finally  it 
seems  to  have  become  the  general  practice,  to  appoint  married 
women,  and  that  to  a  very  limited  extent, — perhaps  only  in  the 
town  of  Wesel,  in  the  "Netherland  congregation,"  which  consisted 
mostlv  of  dutch  fugitives,  and  was  separate  from  the  regular  town- 
parish.  Here  this  sort  of  female  Diaconate  existed  until  1610. 
As  early  as  15<S1,  a  Synod  at  Middelburg  opposed  the  re-introduc- 
tion of  the  deaconess  office,  "because  of  certain  inconveniences  that 
might  arise  from  it."  No  great  acuteness  is  needed,  to  see  that 
married  women  cannot  be  deaconesses,  while  the  position  of 
isolated  unmarried  women  as  parish-deaconesses  was  scarcely  ten- 
able as  a  permanent  arrangement.  About  the  year  1600,  an  Eng- 
lish reformed  congregation  in  Amsterdam,  of  about  three  hundred 
members,  employing  two  pastors  and  four  deacons,  had,  in  addi- 
tion, a  deaconess,  an  aged  widow,  elected  when  she  was  sixty,  who 
served  for  many  years,  and  was  an  ornament  to  the  congregation. 
It  is  related  of  her,  that  wdth  a  birchen  SMntch  in  her  hand,  she 
kept  order  among  the  young  folk  in  church  ;  that  she  helped  with 
word  and  deed  the  poor,  the  sick,  and  especially  the  young  girls 
and  married  women  of  the  congregation,  and  that,  as  a  mother  in 
Israel  and  a  true  christian,  she  received  willing  obedience  from  all. 
Such  exceptions  may  occasionally  have  occurred.  But  they  only 
confirm  the  result,  that  in  the  manner  attempted  in  the  Nether- 
lands, and  perhaps  among  the  puritans  in  England,  a  female  Dia- 
conate, as  an  abiding  congregational  institution,  is  not  practicable. 
Our  experience  to-day  would  doubtless  be  precisely  the  same,  were 
we  to  expect  the  Diaconate  to  issue  directly  from  the  congregation. 
It  is  a  matter  of  surprise,  that  in  some  quarters,  this  is  not  even 
now  understood. 

57.  In  the  Lutheran  Church  there  was  no  such  abrupt  and 
legalistic  return  to  the  Scriptures,  as  among  the  Reformed.  There- 
fore the  Diaconate  of  the  early  Church   remained  at  first  quite  out 


5.') 


of  the  question.  Circumstances  were  not  calculated  to  bring  it  near 
to  men's  minds ;  and  so  it  essentially  continued,  until  the  begin- 
ning of  our  century.  A  church-order  of  ]Minden,  of  the  year 
1530,  claimed  woman's  service  in  the  care  of  tlie  poor,  but  no  men- 
tion is  made  of  a  regular  Diaconate.  On  the  other  hand,  atnong 
Lutherans,  two  cases  of  convent  -  reconstruction  are  reported, 
which  might  have  proved  promising,  had  the  Diaconate  as  such, 
and  on  a  scale  embracing  a  wider  circle  of  congregations,  received 
attention.  But  nothing  of  this  is  observed.  Those  attempts 
in  which  we  again  recognize  Luther's  unprejudiced  views  of  con- 
ventual life,  when  purified  according  to  evangelical  principles,  are 
germs  possessing  abundant  vitality,  like  the  undertaking  of  Henry- 
Robert  de  la  Marck.  But  these  germs,  for  various  reasons,  found 
the  soil  unprepared  for  their  development. 

The  convent  at  Kappel,  near  Siegen,  held  to  the  Lutherarr 
faith,  according  to  which  its  rules  were  framed.  The  superior  or 
dom'ma  conferred  upon  the  canonesses  their  individual  offices,  secu- 
lar and  spiritual.  Two  of  these  were  assigned  to  every  sister. 
The  spiritual  offices  were  those  of  the  preceptor,  the  precentor, 
the  deaconess,  who  distributed  the  alms,  the  catechist  and  the 
sacristan.  To  these  corresponded  the  secular  offices  of  cellarer, 
stewardess,  mistress  of  the  kitchen,  gatekeeper,  the  teacher  of  han- 
diwork and  the  domina's  attendant.  The  convent  devoted  itselt 
chiefly  to  the  education  of  little  girls,  and  was  famed  for  its  piety 
and  discipline.  It  probably  existed  until  the  beginning  of  the  ]  7. 
Century,  when  a  Roman  Catholic  Count  drove  out  the  canonesses. 
An  actual  continuance  of  convent  forms  does  not  appear  here.  In 
the  old  convents  the  church-sister  had  been  called  the  deaconess^ 
here  it  was  the  almoner.  This  indeed  seems  a  short  step  in  ad- 
vance,— but  it  is  without  meaning  for  the  deaconess  cause. 

The  Lutheran  Convent  at  Walsdorf  in  Nassau  was  further  ad- 
vanced in  its  development.  On  September  16,  1562,  Count  Philip 
of  Idstein  sent  to  the  Convent  of  Benedictine  nuns  at  Walsdorf,  a 
copy  of  the  Augsburg  Confession,  a  number  of  copies  of  the 
Bible,  and  Luther's  Catechism.  On  December  5,  1608,  Count 
Ludwig,  through  the  Superintendent  Tobias  Weber  in  Idstein,  pub- 
lished a  constitution  prepared  by  the  latter  for  the  convent.  The 
worship  in  the  convent  was  to  be  evangelical  "according  to  God's 
Holy  AVord,  as  contained  in  the  Old  und  New  Testaments,  and  as 
explained  to  us  in  the  three  Symbols,  the  Ap  jstles',  the  Nicene 
and  the  Athanasian  Creeds,  furthermore  in  the  unaltered  Augsburg 
Confession,  together  with  its  subsequent  Apology,  the  Smalcald 
Articles,  and  both  Catechisms,  the  large  and  small,  of  that  godly 
man  Luther."  Preaching,  the  administration  of  the  most  holy 
sacraments,  catechization  and  other  godly  exercises  shall  be  at- 
tended to  by  a  pastor,  in  obedience  to  the  superintendent's  instruc- 


—     0(3     — 

tions,  until  a  regular  pastor  be  appointed  for  the  institution. 
Chapters  from  the  Holy  Scri[)tures  shall  be  read  daily  by  the 
Sisters  in  turn,  until  a  regular  reader  be  a})pointed.  The  Seripture- 
lessons  shall  be  ehosen  aeeording  to  a  fixed  order,  and  appropriate 
to  the  festival  seasons  of  the  Church. 

Young  women  desiring  admission  to  the  convent,  must  be  of 
devout  behavior,  and  must  have  reached  their  eighteenth  year 
that  thev  may  justly  appreciate  the  great  responsibilities  of  their 
calling.  Their  entrance  must  be  entirely  volimtary,  without 
any  coercion  whatever.  Every  Sister  is  free  to  leave  the  con- 
vent at  any  time,  or  to  embrace  the  opportunity  of  an  honorable 
marriage.  Every  Sister  must  undergo  a  probation  of  one  year, 
and  after  its  favorable  conclusion,  is  consecrated  by  the  superinten- 
dent. At  this  ceremony,  Scripture-passages,  referring  to  the  un- 
married and  associated  life,  were  read,  and  the  candidate,  w^ith  a 
hand-clasp,  promised  the  pastor  to  live  a  })ious,  chaste  and  godly 
life  in  union  with  the  convent.  The  following  prayer  of  conse- 
cration was  used  :  "Our  heavenly  Father,  Who  hast  for  many  years 
preserved  this  house  of  worship,  and  hast  finally  granted  it  grace, 
that  Thy  Word  is  preached  in  it,  pure  and  unperverted  by  human 
doctrines,  and  that  Thy  service  is  performed  in  it  according  to  Thy 
law  and  testimony, — we  pray  Thee  through  Jesus  Christ,  TJiy  dear 
Son,  our  Lord,  that  Thou  wouldst  bless  the  good  work,  which 
we  have  this  day  begun,  and  grant  that  it  may  redound  to 
the  glory  of  Thy  Holy  Name,  to  the  building  up  of  this 
church  and  convent,  and  to  the  temporal  and  everlasting  welfare  of 
us  all."  The  Sister  paid  two  hundred  florins  to  the  institu- 
tion for  her  support,  a  part  of  which  was  refunded  to  her,  in  case 
she  left  the  convent. — The  abbess  received  her  instructions  from 
the  superintendent. — Not  more  than  eight  young  women  were  to  be 
received,  and  their  duty  was  to  be  the  education  of  "little-school- 
maidens".  These  paid  twenty  florins  annually,  and  were  instructed 
in  grayer,  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  and  all  house  and  handi- 
work, such  as  spinning,  sewing,  knitting,  lace-making,  preparing 
linen,  butter-making  and  gardening,  that  they  might  grow  up  as 
children  of  God,  "perfect,  thoroughly  furnished  unto  all  good 
works."  The  offices  were  similar  to  those  at  Kappel.  The  "pre- 
ceptor" gave  the  Bible-lessons,  the  "school-mistress"  superinten- 
ded the  pupils,  the  "deaconess"  looked  after  the  poor  within  and 
without  the  precincts  of  the  convent,  the  "catechist"  taught  Lu- 
thers  small  Catechism,  the  "stewardess"  had  charge  of  the  income 
and  expenditures,  the  "mistress  of  the  kitchen"  superintended  the 
cooking,  and  the  "gate-keeper"  watched  at  the  little  window  of  the 
convent  portal.  Some  taught  fine,  some  coarse  handiwork.  A 
steward  was  appointed  for  the  management  of  the  farm.  The  Sis- 
ters wore  a  habit  of  black  woollen  stuff,  and  a  veil.     The  door  of 


-   57   — 

the  convent  was  to  be  always  locked,  and  the  abbess  herself  carried 
the  key.  The  Sisters  might  receive  visitors  only  by  permission, 
these  must  conduct  themselves  properly,  and  leave  before  evening. 
Inasmuch  as  idleness  is  the  beginning  of  all  evil,  each  Sister 
shall,  praying  and  working  faithfully,  fulfil  her  duty. 

All  this  was  excellent,  well-planned,  and  certainly  far  superior 
to  those  foundations  for  women  of  nobility  and  others,  that 
were  reconstructed  from  Roman  Catholic  convents.  Yet  there 
was  in  it  no  trace  ol  the  actual  diaconate,  which  was  not  even 
thought  of.  The  institution  did  not  enjoy  a  very  long  life.  In  the 
winter  of  1624,  the  last  inmates,  with  their  Abbess  Marie  von 
Klingelbach,  died  of  the  plague. 

58,  While  the  renewal  of  the  diaconate  was  not  accomplished 
in  the  period  immediately  succeeding  the  reformation,  the  follow- 
ing age  was  even  less  propitious.  The  thirty  years'  war,  with  its 
distress,  laid  waste  all  churchly  life.  Germany  was  filled  with 
ruins,  all  national  energy  was  paralyzed,  innumerable  blossoms 
were  trampled  under  foot.  It  was  impossible  that  a  matter  of  so 
tender  a  nature,  as  woman's  ministry  in  the  Church,  could  thrive. 
The  succeeding  years  continued  unfavorable.  The  administra- 
tion of  the  established  Church  hardened  more  and  more  into  a 
bureaucratic  form.  The  care  of  the  poor  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
state,  and  the  charitable  activity  of  the  Church  was  forced  into  the 
background.  The  doctrinal  discussions  did  not  abate,  and  often 
claimed  exclusive  possession  of  the  minds  of  the  clergy.  Worst  of 
all,  the  congregational  life,  as  such,  was  without  self-reliance  and 
free  activity.  Thus  it  remained,  until  the  Lord  Himself  ushered  in 
the  hour,  when  the  female  diaconate  in  the  Protestant  Church  should 
obtain  its  rights  ;  and  with  them,  that  form  and  development,  for 
which  the  Reformation  had  laid  the  foundation,  and  prepared 
the  way. 

It  must  be  mentioned,  that  in  two  Protestant  communions, 
whose  paths  lay  apart  from  the  general  churchly  development,  the 
deaconess  cause  obtained,  if  not  a  vigorous  growth,  yet  a  permanent 
organization.  The  one  of  these  communions  is  that  of  the  Menno- 
uites  in  the  Netherlands  ;  the  other,  that  of  the  Moravians.  The 
founder  of  the  latter.  Count  Zinzendorf,  proposed  to  the  synod  of 
Marienborn,  held  in  1745,  that  deacons  and  deaconesses  be  appoin- 
ted, after  the  manner  of  the  early  Church,  the  former  to  preach  the 
Gospel,  and  assist  in  the  administration  of  the  blessed  sacraments,  and 
in  the  visitation  of  the  sick,  and  the  latter  to  aid  those  of  their  own 
sex  in  all  cases  of  need.  They  would  thus  be  continuing  what  their 
fathers,  the  Bohemian-Moravian  brethren,  had  begun.  To  be  sure, 
the  question  here  was  of  woman's  ministry  to  a  very  limited  ex- 
tent, not  of  the  diaconate  as  an  independent  life-calling.  The  or- 
ganization existing  among  the  Mennonites  offered  valuable  sug- 


—  58  — 

gestions  to  Flicdner,  during  his  travels  in  the  Netherhmds,  when 
the  thought;?  began  to  stir  within  him,  whieh  h'd  to  the  renewal 
in  our  eenturv,  and  on  an  evangelical  l)asisof'the  female  diaeonate. 

59.  In  (iermany,  a  new  awakening  of  the  religious  life  suc- 
ceeded the  wars  of  liberation.  The  ancient  treasures  of  the  Church, 
for  which  a  rationalistic  generation  of  pastors  had  well-nigh  lost 
all  appreciation,  were  again  brought  to  light.  And  then  it  was, 
that  the  hour  of  its  resurrection  upon  an  evangelical  basis  came  to 
the  female  diaeonate.  Wo  maycimtidently  assert  that  this  period, 
more  than  any  previous  one,  had  been  prepared  by  God.  Many 
influences  co-operated.  Not  only  was  the  clergy  stirred  by  a  new 
spirit,  but  from  among  the  laity  likewise,  new  impulses  and  signs 
of  life  proceeded.  In  the  Protestant  Church,  the  harsh  opposition 
to  all  forms  of  a  pre-reformatory  origin  had  abated.  The 
new  breath  of  life,  which  penetrated  all  conditions  of  life,  was  felt 
also  in  the  Romish  Church.  Both  sides  showed  an  inclination  to 
learn  from  each  other.  In  France  the  Sisters  of  Mount  Calvary,  and 
in  Germany  the  Sisters  of  Mercy,  whose  society  was  founded  in  1808 
by  the  Archbishop  Droste  von  Vischering,  were  not  bound  by  mo- 
nastic rules.  They  took  no  vows, — the  doctrine  and  example  ot 
Christ  were  to  be  their  only  rule.  Their  Superior  was  to  be  their 
''Mother",  and  so  she  was  called.  In  England  a  bishop  of  London, 
Dr.  Julius,  recommended  the  founding  of  a  protestant  association  ot 
Sisters  of  Mercy.  Especially  was  this  idea  advocated  by  various 
prominent  personages  in  Germany.  It  is  unmistakable,  how  the 
Lutheran  appreciation  of  historic  associations  here  asserted  itself. 
At  the  same  time  the  reformed  spir/t  also  manifested  itself,  which 
supposed  it  possible  to  transfer  the  scriptural  practice  directly  to  the 
present.  It  is,  however,  especially  noticeable,  that  in  all  these  at- 
tempts, worn-out  paths  were  avoided.  It  was  a  season  of  new  life, 
of  new  beginnings,  endeavoring  after  a  fashion  of  its  own,  to  com- 
prehend and  realize  its  aims.  The  deaconess  work  may  in  a  measure 
be  characterized  as  a  result  of  the  nearer  approach  of  the  confessions 
toward  each  other.  Even  to-day,  in  the  tangle  of  countless 
unionistic  misunderstandings,  it  is  shown,  how  great  a  blessing 
attends  this  approach,  if  the  vital  point  of  churchly  organization, 
confessional  loyalty,  remains  untouched  by  it. 

60.  The  Rev.  John  Adolf  Francis  Kloenne,  of  Bislich,  near 
Wesel,  afterwards  of  Calcar,  where  he  died  in  1834,  had  fought  in 
the  wars  of  liberation,  and  as  pastor  took  the  liveliest  interest  in 
the  efforts  for  spreading  the  Bible  on  the  Lower  Rhine ;  and  also 
in  the  labors  of  a  missionary  league,  which  afterwards  became  a 
building-stone  in  the  construction  of  the  Barmen  Mission  Society. 
Stimulated  by  the  activity  of  the  women's  associations  during  the 
war,  he  soon  after  its  close  published  a  pamphlet :  "The  Revival  of 
the    Deaconesses    of  the    early    Church    in    our    Women's  Asso- 


—  59  — 

ciations."  He  deplores  that  these  associations,  whose  labors  had 
been  so  abundantly  blessed  should  cease  without  resulting  in  a 
lasting  institution,  after  the  pattern  of  the  diaconate  of  the  early 
Church,  as  presented  to  us  in  Romans  16,  and  by  the  church- 
fathers.  He  projrosed  a  plan,  whicli  had  suggested  itself  to  him. 
The  women  of  a  parish  should  unite  to  form  a  society,  under  the 
management  of  a  superintendent,  for  the  care  of  the  poor  and  sick. 
After  two  years,  one-half  of  the  number  withdrawing,  others  are 
to  be  elected  to  serve  in  their  places.  These  deaconesses,  under  the 
authority  of  the  presbytery,  rank  equally  with  the  deacons.  Thev 
are  the  holders  of  an  office  of  honor,  whicli  can  be  declined  only 
for  the  weightiest  reasons.  The  project  was  immature.  It  over- 
rated the  congregational  powers,  and  underrated  the  demands  to  be 
made  upon  deaconesses.  It  is  significant  that  this  plan,  which  did 
not  wholly  advocate  the  direct  adoption  of  the  methods  of  the  early 
Church,  expected  to  realize  the  idea  of  the  female  diaoonate  on  the 
basis  of  an  association. 

Kloenne  submitted  his  plan  to  certain  influential  persons. 
Minister  von  Altenstein,  w^ith  hearty  recognition  of  his  purpose, 
wrote  him,  that  only  after  such  societies,  through  the  efforts  of  the 
clergy,  were  once  at  work,  would  it  be  possible  to  determine  the 
position  the  congregation  was  to  occupy  toward  them,  and  whether 
the  female  diaconate  was  capable  of  renewal  in  this  way.  Princess 
William  of  Prussia  (formerly  Princess  Marianne  of  Hesse)  wrote, 
that  she  herself  had  often  desired  an  arrangement  of  this  kind ;  but 
she  justly  considered  the  voluntary  assumption  of  such  a  calling  as 
more  promising  than  election  by  the  congregation  ;  she  also  per- 
ceived the  incompatibility  of  the  deaconess  calling  with  the  duties 
of  married  women.  Bishop  Eylert  told  Kloenne  that  his  words 
were  assuredly  not  spoken  in  vain,  but  that  such  an  idea  presup- 
posed a  high  order  of  congregational  life.  A  physician.  Dr. 
Guenther,  of  Duisburg,  called  attention  to  the  importance  of  the 
matter  especially  from  a  pastoral  point  of  view,  adding  that  a  simi- 
lar institution  was  in  force  among  the  Moravians.  These  various 
replies  did  not  promote  the  plan  ;  for  while  they  approve,  they  also 
criticize  Kloenne's  idea.  Yet  the  sympathy  accorded  him  indicated 
that  the  fulfillment  of  his  wishes  Avas  not  far  distant.  But  it  was 
not  to  be  brought  about  in  the  manner  proposed  by  him. 

61.  A  nearer  approach  to  a  realization  of  the  idea  was  made 
by  two  other  persons,  both  of  whom  were,  as  it  seems,  uninfluenced 
by  Kloenne.  These  were  the  Minister  vom  Stein,  and  the  Ham- 
burg patrician's  daughter,  Amalie  Sieveking. 

Incited  by  the  activity  of  the  Sisters  of  Mercy,  Stein  earnestly 
assured  Minister  von  Bodelschwingh,  who  visited  him  at  Nass- 
au, that  it  was  among  his  greatest  desires,  to  see  established  in  the 
Protestant  Church  an  institution  similar  to  the  Sisterhood  of  Mercy. 


—   60  — 

He  opened  negotiations  with  a  pastor  Stein  in  Frankfurt. 
Through  von  Bodelschwingh,  Miss  Sieveking  in  lianihurg  hoard  ot 
Stein's  idea,  and  wrote  to  him.  He  replied,  tliat  his  knowh'dge  of 
the  Sisters  of  Mercy  was  only  superficial ;  but  that  ho  had  l)een  im- 
pressed by  their  contented ness  in  the  quiet  and  blessed  work  ot 
well-doing,  to  which  the  discontent  of  aging,  unmarried  women  ot 
the  upper  and  middle  classes,  whose  idle  lives  left  them  only  empti- 
ness and  bitterness,  formed  an  offensive  contrast.  The  question 
suggested  itself,  why  similar  institutions  were  not  to  be  found 
among  protestants  Benevolent  institutions  and  charitable  women's 
societies  indeed  existed.  But  an  enduring,  fixed  association,  like 
that  of  the  Sisters  of  Mercy,  with  its  many  excellent  features,  was 
lacking.  The  resolve,  which  Amalie  Sieveking  had  communicated 
to  him,  of  founding  a  Protestant  Sisterhood  of  ]\Iercy,  he  pro- 
nounced in  the  highest  degree  praiseworthy  and  useful. 

Amalie  Sieveking  relates  that  in  her  eighteenth  year  she  first 
heard  of  the  Sisters  of  Mercy.  That  the  thought  had  flashed 
through  her  brain  like  lightning,  whether  she  were  not  perhaps 
destined  to  organize  a  similar  institution  in  our  Protestant  Church. 
The  more  dearly  she  loved  her  Church,  the  more  painfully  she  felt 
its  lack  of  the  fair  adornment  of  an  active,  organized  charity.  Prom- 
inent men,  like  Gossner,  vora  Stein,  and  others,  encouraged  her. 
But  she  felt,  that  she  must  beware  of  self-chosen  paths,  and 
waited  for  divine  guidance.  She  recognized  as  such  the  break- 
ing out  of  the  cholera  in  Hamburg,  in  the  autumn  of  1831.  She 
entered  the  cholera  hospital  as  nurse,  and  published  an  ap- 
peal to  women,  to  join  her  in  this  work  of  mercy.  None  came, 
and  the  matter  was  at  an  end  for  the  time.  Her  thoughts  then 
turned  to  the  organization  of  a  women's  society  for  the  care  of  the 
sick  and  destitute  in  her  native  city.  This  society  was  called  into 
being  through  her  efforts,  and  became  of  great  importance.  When 
Fliedner,  in  later  years,  tried  to  enlist  her  for  the  deaconess  calling, 
first  for  Kaiserswerth  and  then  for  Berlin,  she  was  unwilling  to 
relinquish  the  work  in  which  she  was  engaged,  and  which  the  Lord 
had  assigned  to  her. 

What  Stein  and  Miss  Sieveking  desired,  was  precisely  that 
which  afterwards  came  to  pass ;  this  recognition  should  not  be  with- 
held from  them.  It  is  true,  the  path  which  led  to  the  establishment 
of  the  Protestant  female  diaconate,  was  not  that  of  mechanical  imita- 
tion. Only  the  free,  creative  power,  inherent  in  a  living  faith,  could 
accomplish  lasting  results.  Yet  the  form,  in  which  woman's 
ministry  in  the  Church  has  been  realized  among  us,  is  no  other 
than  that  adopted  by  the  M^omen's  associations  before  the  Reforma- 
tion. It  is  this  form,  which  Vincent  de  Paul  developed  upon  the 
Roman  Catholic,  and  Fliedner  upon  the  Protestant  basis,  each  in 


—  61   — 

his  own  original  manner,  and  in  a  totally  different  spirit,  but  prac- 
tically with  one  and  the  same  purpose  in  view. 

62.  A  year  before  the  opening  of  the  first  Deaconess  Mother- 
house,  Count  Adalbert  von  der  Recke-Vollmerstein,  a  man  of  high 
repute  in  Christian  charitable  work,  the  founder  of  a  reformatory 
near  Duesseldorf,  and  of  an  idiot  asylum  in  Silesia,  believed  that 
a  Protestant  diaconate  was  possible,  as  an  institutional  and  as- 
sociative organization,  but  not  as  a  direct  emanation  from  the  con- 
gregational life.  In  the  Spring  of  1835,  he  began  to  issue  a 
periodical,  entitled  :  "The  deaconess,  or  the  Life  and  Work  of  the 
Servants  of  the  Church,  for  Instruction,  Education  and  Sick- 
nursing."  Only  one  number  appeared.  In  it,  the  author  states 
that  twenty  years  ago,  he  had  already  felt  the  need  of  deaconesses, 
and  had  frequently  urged  the  matter.  He  wished  the  female  diaco- 
nate to  exist  as  a  churchly  office,  its  activity  to  be  enlisted  for  institu- 
tions of  mercy  of  every  description,  most  especially  however,  for 
Christian  congregations,  and  also  for  mission-work  among  the  hea- 
then. The  receiving  and  training  of  deaconesses  demanded  an 
institution,  a  "Deaconess-Convent",  which  he  proposed  to  establish 
near  Duesseldorf  He  planned  every  feature  after  the  pattern  of 
the  early  Church,  yet  adapted  to  the  needs  and  conditions  of  the 
present.  For  larger  districts  he  suggested  an  abbess,  and  under  her 
arch-deaconesses  and  deaconesses.  He  submitted  his  plan  to  the 
crown-prince,  Frederick  William,  who  replied  on  November  6, 
1835  :  "Your  ideas  regarding  the  revival  of  the  order  of  deaco- 
nesses in  our  Church  I  have  welcomed  with  true  delight.  Such  a 
revival  has  for  many  a  year  lived  in  my  imagination  as  a  longedfor 
ideal  ;  as  one  of  the  many  things  greatly  needed  and  yet  lacking  in 
our  Church  ;  as  a  want,  such  as  the  absence  of  a  nose  for  example, 
would  be  to  the  human  face.  I  especially  agree  w^ith  the  view 
that  the  office  should  be  lormally  recognized  as  a  churchly 
office.  But  this  must  be  sanctioned  by  the  Church  herself, 
and  from  her  the  order  of  helpful  women  must  receive  its 
citizenship.  This  I  would  advise  you  first  to  secure,  and  by  no 
means  to  proceed  with  the  official  consecration,  before  such  recog- 
nition is  obtained.  Two  paths  seem  to  me  open ;  whether  both 
should  be  followed  at  the  same  time,  I  will  not  now  decide.  The 
first  would  be,  to  make  application  to  the  Rhenish  Church,  or 
perhaps  to  that  of  Berg,  to  recognize  by  a  resolution  the  order  of 
deaconesses,  as  a  branch  of  the  church-administration  ;  the  second, 
to  request  the  Church  to  petition  His  Majesty  for  the  re-introduc- 
tion of  this  order." 

It  is  clear,  from  the  ideas  of  the  count  and  crown-prince,  both 
of  whom  remained  warm  and  faithful  promoters  of  the  work,  that 
the  question  was  ready  for  immediate  solution.  The  path  was  marked 
out.     The  hope  of  incorporation  with  the  congregational  life  of  the 


—  (52  — 

established  Chuivli  avus  no  doubt  preinaturo.  Moreover,  such  mat- 
ters are  not  arranged  by  the  authorities,  or  according  to  a  fixed  |)ro- 
grani,  but  arc  subject  to  growth.  The  Lord  had  prepared  the  soil,  as 
it  is  i>roved  by  the  personages  whose  utterances  have  been  (pioted ; 
and  He  luid  already  chosen  the  man,  who  was  to  plant  the  grain  of 
mustard-seed. 

68.  George  Henry  Theodore  Fliedner,  the  son  of  pastor  Flied- 
ner,  was  born  at  Epstein,  in  the  Taunus,  on  January  21,  1800.  He 
was  a  sturdy  child,  of  quiet  disposition  and  manner,  and  of  fair 
mental  endowments.  His  father  once  said  jestingly  of  the  seven- 
year-old  child  :  ''This  is  my  dear  little  fat  boy ;  one  of  thei^e  days 
he  will  become  an  honest  brewer."  The  child,  blushing  and  iu 
tears,  crept  away  ;  for  like  his  father  and  grandfather,  he  wished 
to  be  a  clergyman.  In  the  lessons  which  the  father  himself  gave 
his  children,  he  made  rapid  progress,  studied  with  ease,  and  was  a 
great  reader,  without  being  a  close  student.  When,  on  Whitsun- 
day, 1813,  he  was  confirmed,  his  new  clothes  gave  him  more  to 
think  of,  than  the  solemnity  of  the  occasion.  But  times  of  sorrow 
soon  followed,  which  proved  decisive  for  him  also.  The  cossacks 
came  to  Epstein,  and  with  them  plague  and  famine.  Pastor  Flied- 
ner fell  ill.  The  daughters  of  the  house  were  forced  to  dance  with 
the  officers,  while  their  father  lay  dying.  When  the  cossacks  left, 
after  plundering  barns  and  store  rooms,  the  indignant  Theodore 
could  not  deny  himself  the  satisfaction  of  flinging  a  piece  of  wood 
from  the  open  barn  door,  after  the  last  unwelcome  guest.  Shortly 
before  Christmas  the  father  died,  leaving  his  wife  with  eleven 
children.  By  the  aid  of  friends  and  relatives,  Theodore  and  his 
brother  were  sent  at  New  Year,  1814,  to  the  gymnasium  at  Id- 
stein.  He  was  obliged  to  practise  great  economy,  and  shrank  from 
no  work.  His  favorite  reading  was  travels  and  the  biographies  of 
eminent  men,  which  incited  him  to  emulation.  By  Easter  of  1817 
he  was  ready  to  enter  the  University  of  Giessen,  in  order  to  study 
theology.  He  supported  himself  by  giving  lessons  and  by  copying, 
in  addition  to  such  help  as  he  received  from  others.  He  was  of  a 
cheerful  disposition.  With  two  florins  in  his  pocket,  he  made  a 
journey  on  foot  to  Nuremberg  and  Wuerzburg.  He  kept  aloof  from 
the  immature  political  aspirations  of  his  fellow-students  ;  his  prac- 
tical common-sense  beiup;  his  safe-ffuard.     Nor  did  the  rationalism 

.... 

of  the  theological  professors  succeed  in  blinding  him.  He  held  fast 
to  the  miracles  and  the  resurrection  of  our  Lord.  At  that  time 
already  he  was  interested  in  the  writings  of  the  reformers,  and  put 
to  shame  by  their  faith.  His  practical  mind  was  active  in  various 
ways.  He  collected  directions  for  children's  games,  household 
remedies  for  man  and  beast,  instructions  regarding  harmful  plants, 
and  so  forth,  for  country  people.  These  were  beginnings,  which 
afterwards,  in  the  management  of  institutions  and   little  children's 


—  63  — 

schools,  bore  valuable  fruits.  From  Giessen  he  went  to  Goettingen. 
He  was  still,  although  of  a  candid,  seeking  spirit,  without  deeper, 
spiritual  lite.  Repeated  journeys  on  foot  contributed  materially  to 
his  culture.  He  travelled  as  far  as  Bremen  and  Hamburg,  and 
visited  the  Harz  mountains.  At  Halle  he  saw  August  Herman 
Franke's  Orphanage,  which  left  a  powerful  impression  upon  his 
mind.  After  a  year's  study  at  the  Theological  Seminary  of  Her- 
born,  having  reached  the  age  of  twenty,  he  passed  his  examination 
with  credit.  The  acquaintance  with  several  earnest  christians,  one  of 
them  a  professor  at  Herborn,  and  another  a  young  land-owner,  ex- 
erted a  lasting  influence  upon  him.  Fliedner  then  went  to  Cologne, 
as  private  tutor  in  a  refined  and  cultured  family.  There  he  was  ob- 
liged to  acquire  polish  of  manner.  He  was  eager  and  faithful  in 
his  duties,  and  prayed  diligently  with  liis  pupils.  He  preached 
occasionally,  became  a  member  of  the  Rhenish  Bible-Society,  and 
came  visibly  nearer  to  God.  In  the  autumn  of  1821,  he  was  ap- 
pointed pastor  at  Kaiserswerth,  ^'chiefly,"  he  writes,  ''because  I 
was  a  Lutheran."  Kaiserwerth  on  the  Rhine  is  a  Roman  Catho- 
lic town,  to  whose  former  importance  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  strong- 
hold still  bear  witness.  The  little  Protestant  congregation  was 
Lutheran  and  Reformed  united.  On  January  18,  1822,  Fliedner 
arrived,  unnoticed  and  on  foot,  so  as  to  cause  the  poor  congre- 
gation no  expense.  His  sister  kept  house  for  him.  The  congre- 
gation was  in  a  precarious  state,  and  its  very  existence  seemed 
threatened  by  the  bankruptcy  of  a  manufacturing  establishment. 
Fliedner  could  have  had  a  better  parish,  but  he  was  daily  growing 
in  earnestness,  and  did  not  wish  to  prove  himself  a  hireling.  He 
therefore  resolved  to  secure  the  continuance  of  the  congregation  by 
undertaking  a  collecting  tour.  He  began  with  great  trepidation  in 
Elberfeld.  A  pastor  of  the  town,  who  received  him  kindly,  told  him, 
that  for  this  work,  beside  trust  in  God,  three  things  were  needful, 
namely  "patience,  impudence,  and  eloquence".  Fliedner  soon  per- 
ceived that  the  Lord  was  granting  him  success,  and  decided  to  ex- 
tend his  journey  to  Holland  and  England.  God  blessed  his  tire- 
less activity,  and  the  future  of  his  congregation  was  made  secure. 
Fliedner  himself,  through  his  intercourse  with  many  active  chris- 
tians, attained  to  a  more  and  more  positive  faith,  and  by  the  in- 
spection of  numerous  institutions  of  mercy,  received  a  strong 
stimulus.  He  wrote  Kloenne  an  account  of  the  deaconesses  of  the 
dutch  Mennonites. 

64.  Fliedner's  life,  thus  far,  was  God's  school,  in  which  he 
was  being  trained  for  his  real  life-work.  Although  he  was  zealous 
and  successl'ul  in  the  fulfillment  of  his  pastoral  duties,  and  taught 
a  number  of  pupils  besides,  yet  the  sraallness  of  his  parish  left  him 
time  tor  outside  work.  He  first  took  jjity  on  the  prisoners.  After 
the  example  of  Elizabeth  Fry  in   England,   he  began  to  examine 


-  64  — 

into  the  condition  of  the  prisons,  and  to  hold  services  in  the  gaol 
at  Duesscldorf.  The  first  German  Prison  Association  was  formed, 
in  whose  interest  Fliedner  made  several  journeys.  In  })ursuance 
of  this  work  he  met  his  first  wife,  Frederica  Muenster,  who  was 
laboring  in  the  reformatory  at  Duesselthal.  He  married  her  in 
1828,  and  she  became  to  him  a  true  and  faitiiful  help-mate.  By 
the  opening,  in  18.32,  of  an  asylum  for  discharged  female  convicts, 
the  beginning  was  made  of  the  Kaiserswcrth  Institutions.  The 
first  inmate,  Minna,  was  temporarily  lodged  in  the  summer  house 
of  the  parsonage  garden.  The  means  were  mostly  obtained  by  col- 
lections. The  little  summer  house  became  the  cradle  of  the  Kai- 
serswcrth Magdalen  Home,  and  of  all  the  institutions  established 
there. 

This  first  undertaking  of  Fliedner's  was  followed,  three  years 
later,  by  a  second,  with  which  especially  his  name  will  forever  more 
be  connected.  It  is  the  Kaiserswerth  Deaconess  Motherhouse.  Oc- 
tober 13,  1836,  was  the  birthday  of  the  modern  female  diacouate 
upon  evangelical  basis. 

For  a  long  time  the  condition  of  the  destitute  sick  had  troubled 
him  He  had  visited  many  hospitals.  Sometimes  the  portals  were 
of  glistening  marble,  but  the  patients  received  insufficient  care,  the 
nursing  staff  being  depraved  by  drink  and  immorality.  Should 
not  Protestant  christian  women  be  able  and  willing  to  nurse  the 
sick  ?  Had  not  the  women  of  the  apostolic  age  exercised  the  diaco- 
nate  ?  Had  not  women  during  the  wars  of  liberation  abundantly 
proved  their  fitness  for  this  work  ?  Fliedner  was  persuaded,  that 
the  talent  only  required  to  be  awakened,  and  individuals  would 
not  be  wanting.  Institutions  must  he  established,  in  ivhich  unmarried 
women  should  be  trained,  for  the  care  of  the  poor,  the  sick,  and  the 
prisoners,  and  associated  together  in  a  close  community. 

Fliedner's  ideas,  as  we  see,  were  practical,  fixed  without  hesi- 
tation or  deviation  upon  what  was  attainable, — undeterred  even  by 
the  ideal  of  a  direct  imitation  of  biblical  and  apostolic  types.  With- 
out much  examining  and  theorizing,  his  clear,  dispassionate  glance 
found  that  method,  for  which  the  past  history  of  the  Church 
had  prepared  the  way.  His  thoughts  gave  him  no  peace.  His 
wife's  courage  was  even  greater  than  his  own.  It  i?eemed  un- 
advisable  to  make  the  beginning  in  the  little  town  of  Kaiserswerth. 
But  wherever  he  approached  the  clergy  of  more  important  places, 
his  request  was  denied.  He  thus  became  assured,  that  the  Lord 
meant  to  lay  this  work  upon  no  other  shoulders  than  his  own. 

In  the  Spring  of  1836,  without  having  any  money  in  hand, 
he  purchased  the  largest  and  finest  house  in  Kaiserswerth.  Through 
his  efforts,  the  Rhenish-Westphalian  Deaconess  Association  was 
organized.  God  provided  both  friends  of  the  cause  and  ])ecuniary 
means.     An  unmarried  woman,  Gertrude  Keichardt,  a  physician's 


—  65  — 

daiiti'liter,  offered  her  services  as  dedconess.  But  before  her  arrival 
the  institution  was  ojDcned,  on  October  13,  with  the  scantiest  furnish- 
ings, without  patients,  but  amid  heartfelt  praise  and  thanksgiving. 
On  October  22,  Sister  Gertrude,  the  first  deaconess,  came.  Patients 
soon  arrived,  and  other  Sisters  applied  for  admission.  About  a 
month  after  the  opening  of  the  House,  Fliedner,  who  Avas  absent 
on  a  collectino;  tour,  wrote  to  the  little  band  of  Sisters  :  "Your 
labor  of  love  is  continually  before  my  eyes. — I  pray  daily,  and 
many  dear  friends  with  me,  that  the  faithful  Shepherd  and  Saviour 
may  daily  and  hourly  strengthen  you  in  body  and  soul,  to  serve 
Him,  without  growing  weary,  among  His  poor  and  suffering.  Oh, 
how  sweet  a  burden  and  toil,  to  wash  the  wounds  of  Christ,  and  to 
aunoint  His  body  for  burial.  A¥ho  would  not  gladly,  with  Mary 
Magdalene  and  Salome,  have  done  this,  counting  herself  blessed, 
to  render  this  service  to  His  most  holy  body?  Yes, — what  Christian 
would  not  willingly  have  washed  the  blood  from  His  tortured 
body  on  Calvary,  and  dried  it  with  her  hair  ?  And  now,  my  dear 
Sisters  in  the  Lord,  your  work  among  the  sick  is  the  same  as  was 
that  of  Mary  Magdalene  and  Salome,  if  you  perform  it,  looking  up 
to  Him,  in  love  to  Him  and  in  faith."  Communications  regard- 
ing his  business  matters,  practical  advice  and  commissions  con- 
clude the  letter.  The  instruction  given  by  Fliedner  to  the  Sisters 
was  in  the  same  spirit.  Even  at  that  early  period  a  detailed 
house-order  and  rules  of  service  were  prepared  for  the  Sisters, 
treating  with  equal  care  the  spiritual  and  technical  aspects  of 
the  calling.  It  became  the  basis  of  that  house-order,  after  which 
the  orders  of  most  of  the  newer  Motherhouses  are  patterned.  It 
embodies  the  fundamental  principles  of  the  Protestant  deaconess 
work  of  our  day,  and  is  replete  with  wisdom  and  thought.  In 
January,  1838,  the  first  outside  station  was  undertaken, — the 
municipal  hospital  at  Elberfeld.  The  members  of  the  royal 
household,  and  especially  the  crown-prince  of  Prussia  aided  the 
work.  The  Lord  opened  the  hearts  of  high  and  low  throughout 
the  land.  Among  them  all,  and  more  than  all,  Fliedner's  wife 
was  his  chief  helper.  In  regard  to  rules,  dress,  and  other  regula- 
tions, the  right  method  had  to  be  found  ;  and  her  clear  insight, 
sanctified  by  religion,  preserved  him  from  mistakes.  To  the 
domestic  virtues  of  cleanliness,  order,  simplicity  and  economy, 
she  united  a  large-hearted  tenderness  toward  all  who  needed  help, 
and  again,  with  almost  masculine  energy,  knew  how  to  resist  the 
abuse  of  ministering  love.  To  the  deaconesess  she  was  at  once  a 
mother  and  an  example,  and  her  name  deserves  to  be  more  frequently 
mentioned,  than  it  is,  in  connection  with  the  protestant  renewal  of 
the  female  diaconate. 

65.  After  the  beginning  had   been  made,  the  work  grew  from 
year  to  year.    In  1842,  the  Seminary  for  teachers  of  little  children's 


—  (i()  — 

scliools  was  added.  Fliedner  possessed  excellent  gifts  for  the 
management  of  little  ehiklren.  Later  on  he  asso<.'iated  with  him- 
self the  young  teacher,  J.  Ranke,  who  was  equally  calculated  to 
promote  this  important  branch  of  charitable  work.  Fliedner  also 
obtained  an  assistant  in  his  pastoral  office.  The  Publication- 
House  of  the  Deaconess  Institution  was  established,  the  Kaisers- 
werth  Almanac  made  its  appearance,  and  later  on  the  "Friend  of 
the  Sick  and  Poor"  was  issued.  An  orj>hanao:e  was  founded  • 
Deaconess  Houses  were  opened  elsewhere,  mostly  with  the  co- 
operation of  Fliedner  and  the  Kaiserswerth  Motherhonse.  In  the 
midst  of  all  this  success,  God's  hand  lay  heavily  upon  Fliedner's 
family.  His  brothers  and  his  children  died;  but  the  heaviest 
blow  of  all  ^ras  the  death  of  his  faithful  wife,  on  April  22,  1842. 
"She  died  first,  of  all  the  deaconesses,"  Fliedner  wrote,  *'as  like 
a  mother  she  M'alked  before  her  spiritual  daughters  in  life,  so  in 
death  she  preceded  them."  The  Lord  provided  for  Fliedner's 
family  and  institutions  a  fitting  successor  in  Caroline  Bertheau,  of 
Hamburg,  whom  Fliedner  married  in  May,  1843.  She  too,  pos- 
sessed the  inestimable  gift  of  being  a  friend  and  guide  to  many,  as 
she  continues  to  be,  in  her  old  age.*)  Fliedner  was  trying  to 
secure  a  Superior  for  the  Deaconess  House  about  to  be  established 
in  Berlin,  when  he  made  her  acquaintance.  Of  his  two  marriages 
he  said  :  "Twice  I  experienced  that,  while  I  was  seeking  something 
for  the  Lord,  I  found  what  was  best  for  myself." 

The  secret  of  Fliedner's  comprehensive  activity  was  his  faith, 
a  great  capacity  for  work,  and  an  untiring  energy.  He  was  always 
cheerful  and  good-humored.  His  large  family  of  children  grew 
up,  while  their  father  spent  nearly  half  of  his  time  in  travelling  ; 
and  the  Lord  helped  abundantly,  above  all  that  he  asked  or 
thought,  both  in  the  home  and  in  the  institution.  In  1846,  the 
Seminary  for  Elementary  Teachers  was  opened,  where  afterwards, 
teachers  were  also  trained  for  high-grade  schools  for  girls.  Thus,  by 
degrees,  woman's  gifts  for  the  service  of  God  were  developed  and 
utilized  to  their  full  extent.  The  buildings  for  a  multitude  of 
institutions  were  provided,  for  numerous  officials  and  for  the 
gradually  enlarging  farm.  The  Lord  never  failed  to  furnish  the 
means  as  they  were  needed,  and  Fliedner's  own  family  was  not  al- 
lowed to  suffer  w^ant.  Fliedner's  faculty  for  putting  the  right  per- 
sons in  the  right  places,  manifested  itself  more  and  more  amid  the 
excessive  burden  of  work.  He  used  to  say  humorously  :  '-Any 
one  can  do  everything  himself;  but  to  set  others  to  do  it,  is  an  art." 
This  art  he  thoroughly  understood.  In  many  institutions,  all  the 
arrangements  are  fitted  to  the  capacity  of  one  person, — this  is  a 
great  source  of  weakness.     While  Fliedner  was  the   moving  spirit 

Mrs.  Fliedner  d  e.l,  A,Dril  1892,  aged  81. 


—  67  — 

of  the  multifarious  institutional  activity,  he  at  the  same  time  knew 
how  to  make  the  others  do  without  him.  This  was  not  the  least 
of  his  talents. 

In  the  beginning  of  1 848  he  resigned  his  pastoral  office,  in 
order  to  devote  himself  wholly  to  the  deaconess  cause.  The  Asylum 
for  Insane  Women  was  opened  ;"  and  to  the  numerous  outside  sta- 
tions of  the  Kaiserswerth  deaconesses,  were  added  new  ones,  in 
other  continents.  Fliedner  also  took  a  number  of  Sisters  to  the 
United  States,  where  however,  owing  to  peculiar  social  conditions, 
the  success  of  their  work  has  been  slight.  In  the  East  he  was 
more  fortunate.  The  king  of  Prussia  placed  the  necesarry  means 
at  his  disposal,  and  in  the  Spring  of  1851,  Fliedner  repaired  to 
Jerusalem  with  four  Sisters,  among  them  the  first  teaching  dea- 
conesses, who  were  afterwards  followed  by  many  others.  Nursing 
and  the  christian  training  of  young  girls  are  the  chief  branches 
of  the  deaconess  mission  in  the  East.  Besides  Jerusalem,  the 
Kaiserswerth  Sisters  have  other  fields  of  richly  blessed  activity,  in 
Constantinople,  Smyrna,  Alexandria,  Beirut  and  Cairo.  To 
Fliedner,  the  multiplying  stations  meant  constant  increase  of  work. 
His  literary  activity  grew  in  equal  proportion,  although  his  prin- 
cipal work' continued  to  be  the  training,  placing  and  superintend- 
ing of  the  deaconesses.  His  journeys  grew  more  frequent.  Col- 
lections had  to  be  made,  stations  and  branch  institutions  organized 
or  visited,  and  the  work  promoted  in  other  ways.  In  the  mean 
time  the  building  operations  at  Kaiserswerth  proceeded  almost 
without  interruption.  Among  the  important  buildings  erected 
during  the  later  years  were  a  Health  Station,  and  a  House  of  Eve- 
ning Rest  for  the  Sisters.  Although  much  contempt  had  to  be 
endured,  a  full  appreciation  of  his  services  was  not  lacking.  In 
the  autumn  of  1855  he  received  from  the  University  at  Bonn  the 
degree  of  Doctor  of  Divinity,  the  only  distinction  which  gave  him 
pleasure. 

QQ.  Fliedner's  last  years  showed  that  the  Lord  had  broken  the 
strength  of  the  active,  untiring  man,  and  led  him  into  the  silence 
for  which  he  had  so  often  longed.  Partly  to  relieve  a  pulmonary 
trouble,  he  made  a  second  journey  to  the  East ;  but  he  returned 
without  improvement.  The  Loi'd  permitted  him  to  remain  for  seven 
years  longer.  Sleeping,  and  spending  many  hours  ot  the  day  in  a 
cow-stable,  delayed  the  progress  of  the  disease,  without  curing  it. 
He  dictated  in  a  low  voice,  and  contiuued  uninterruptedly  busy, 
even  though  he  could  no  longer  preach  or  travel.  His  son-in-law. 
Pastor  J.  Disselhoif  more  and  more  supplied  his  place.  Fliedner 
lived  to  see  the  twenty-fifth  anniversary  of  the  deaconess-work.  The 
numerous  Deaconess  Motherhouses,  which  h;ul  meanwhile  come  into 
existence,  began  at  regularly  returning  intervals,  to  send  their  re- 
presentatives to  a  general  conference  held  at  Kaiserswerth.    A  union 


—  (58  — 

of  these  resulted,  which  has  been  productive  of  much  good.  Tlie 
last  ])nildiuii-  be<i:uu  i)v  Fliedner  was  a  deacouoss  school  at  Hildeu. 

( )u  September  ]  2,  1<S<)4,  the  Kaiserswcrth  lustitutious  cele- 
brated their  anniversary,  and  Fliedner  consecrated  ninet<'en  Sisters 
to  the  deaconess  calling.  With  tottering  steps  he  reached  his  home 
after  the  ceremony.  On  the  morning  of  October  3,  he  took  leave 
of  his  family.  The  next  morning  he  rose  from  his  bed  with  the 
words  :  "It  is  time  ;  I  must  be  going."  At  2  o'clock,  in  the  after- 
noon he  fell  asleep.  His  watchward  was  :  "He  must  increase, 
but  I  must  decrease."  A  great  man  in  the  Kingdom  of  God; 
steadfast  and  childlike  in  his  faith,  clear  and  instructive,  impres- 
sive and  stimulating  in  his  speech  ;  as  mild  and  kindly,  as  he  was 
firm  and  decided  ;  of  a  gentle  and  serious  mind  ;  of  great  strength 
of  conviction  and  of  untiring  energy  ;  ruling  by  serving  others; 
a  master  in  the  art  of  asking  and  thanking, — he  labored  more  than 
most  men,  and  died,  trusting  in  grace  ahnie.  "Conqueror  of  death 
— victor,"  were  the  last  words  whispered  by  his  dying  lips.  His 
grave  was  made  in  the  midst  of  a  colony  of  institutions  of  merciful 
love,  erected  to  the  glory  of  Christ.  Xot  only  are  the  Kaiserswcrth 
Institutions,  which  at  his  death  numbered  425  deaconesses,  his 
living  monument,  but  the  entire  modern  female  diaconate  as  iceU, 
whose  spiritual  father  he  became,  by  the  grace  of  God. 

The  coat  of  arms  of  Kaiserswerth  represents  a  grain  of 
mustard-seed,  springing  up  under  the  rays  of  the  sun.  If  we  bear 
in  mind  the  beginning,  in  the  summerhouse  of  the  parsonage  garden  ; 
if  we  remember  the  many  futile  attempts  to  renew  the  diaconate  of 
the  early  church,  in  conformity  with  the  needs  of  modern  congre- 
gational life  ;  if  we  remember  the  problem  which  awaited  solution, 
and  realize  the  measure  of  genuine  practical  und  spiritual  wisdom, 
with  which  it  was  solved  ;  if  we  finally  consider  the  growth  which 
this  work  has  enjoyed,  both  at  home  and  abroad,  we  must  confess  : 
"This  is  the  Lord's  doing  ;  it  is  marvellous  in  our  eyes." 

Among  the  evidences  of  life  in  the  Church  of  modern  times, 
there  is,  beside  the  mission-work  among  the  heathen,  none  more 
important,  than  the  renewal  of  the  female  diaconate  on  the  basis  of 
the  reformation  In  order  the  more  clearly  to  recognize  this  fact, 
a  presentation  of  the  protestant  deaconess  work,  in  the  entire  ex- 
tent of  its  present  activity  is  required.  For  this  purpose,  we  will 
direct  our  attention  first  to  the  Motherhouses,  then  to  the  Sister- 
hoods, and  finally  to  the  Fields  of  Labor  of  the  deaconesses. 


-^^^i^^^^^^i<^ 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

Ths  Deaconess  Motherhouses. 

67.  After  Fliedner  had  prepared  the  way,  the  deaconess  work 
speedily  established  itself  in  the  protestant  chnrch,  and  we  are  now 
able  to  review  the  first  half-century  of  its  progress.  It  is  note- 
worthy, that  with  very  slight  deviations,  it  has  followed  the  line 
marked  out  by  Kaiserswerth.  This  is  especially  true  of  the  prac- 
tical aspect  of  the  work.  We  may  therefore  conclude,  with  a 
reasonable  degree  of  certainty,  that  its  fundamental  principles  were 
not  arbitrarily  chosen,  but  inspired  by  God  for  our  time.  Incom- 
pletenesses may  still  adhere  to  this  form — yet  criticism  is  easierthan 
improvement.  Thus  far  it  has  not  proved  advisable,  nor  productive 
of  more  generally  satisfactory  results,  to  deviate  in  any  essen- 
tial particulars  from  the  path  marked  out  by  common  experience. 

The  number  of  Motherhouses  organized  upon  the  model  ot 
Kaiserswerth.  and  represented  at  the  General  Conference,  is  57.*) 
The  first  decade,  1836 — 1846,  after  the  establishment  of  the  first 
Motherhouse  at  Kaiserswerth,  witnessed  the  organization  of  the 
Motherhouses  in  Berlin  (Elizabeth  Hospital),  Paris  (Rue  de 
Reuilly,  95),  Strasburg,  St.  Loup  (Switzerland),  Dresden,  Utrecht, 
Berne — eight  in  all.  During  the  second  decade,  1846 — 56,  were 
established  the  Motherhouses  in  Berlin  (Bethany),  Stockholm, 
Rochester  (U.  S.),  Breslau,  Koenigsberg,  Stettin,  Ludwigslust, 
Riehen  near  Basel,  Neuendettelsau,  Stuttgart,  Augsburg — twelve 
in  number.  The  third  decade,  1856 — (5ii,  produced  the  sixteen 
Motherhouses  at  Halle,  Darmstadt,  Zuric,  St.  Petersburg,  Spire, 
Hannover,  Craschnitz,  Hamburg  (Bethesda),  London  (West- 
bourne  Park),  Dantsic,  Copenhagen,  Cassel  (Wehlheiden),  Hague, 
Mitau,  Posen,  Sarata.  Between  tlie  years  1866 — 76  were  established 
the  Motherhouses  at  Buda-Pest,  Frankenstein  (Silesia),  Riga,  Ber- 
lin (Lazarus  Hospital),  London  (Tottenham),  Reval,  Helsingfors 
(Finland),  Altona,  Bremen,  Christiania,  Wiborg,  Bielefeld,  New- 
Torney  near  Stettin,  Brunswick,  Frankford  a.  M.,  Flensburg, 
Paris  (7,  Rue  Bridaine), — seventeen  in  number.  Finally,  during 
the  fifth  decade,  1876 — S6,  were  founded   the   four  Motherhouses 


*)  Since  tire  above  was  written,  their  number  has  increased  to  63,  with  90O0 
Sisters,  and  2800  fields  of  labor. 


—  To- 
il! Berlin  (Paul  Gerhardt  Hoiiso)  Xowawes,  Gallnciikir .lici),  and 
Arnlu'ini.  The  minihei'  of  Sisters  in  these  Motliei'lHiiiscs  was,  at 
the  the  time  of"  tiie  oOtli  anniversary,  ().")()(),  tiie  fields  of  hihor 
1\)2').  IJesides  the  ahove-nientioned  Houses,  there  arc  several, 
Avhieli  thus  tar  have  not  been  represented  at  tiie  General  Gonfeivnce 
in  Kaiserswerth  ;  for  the  reason  that  in  some  eases  the  principles 
and  deveh)pment  of  the  work  do  not  in  essential  details  coincide 
with  the  views  of  the  above  mentioned  Motherhouses ;  in  the 
ease  of  others,  the  Conference,  which  meets  only  once  in  tiiree 
years,  has  not  assembled  since  their  organi/ation,  and  their  admis- 
sion has  therefore  not  yet  taken  place. 

Of  the  57  Motherhouses  belonging;  to  the  (General  Conference, 
33  are  German  ;  Switzerland  has  4,  France  2,  Holland  3,  Den- 
mark 1,  Norway  1,  Sweden  1,  Russia  7,  Austro-Hungary  2,  Eng- 
land 2,  America  1.  In  America,  the  cause  is  slowly  taking 
root ;  a  second  Motherliouse  is  however  in  course  of  ereetion 
in  Philadelphia.  In  England,  in  addition  to  the  two  Houses  above 
cited,  one  of  which  is  High-Church,  the  other  dissenting,  there  are 
various  other  deaconess  institutions,  wliose  regulations  seem  to  differ 
widely  from  those  of  Kaiserswerth.  In  Switzerland  and  in  Scan- 
dinavia the  work  has  made  great  progress.  In  Holland,  Fin- 
land and  the  Baltic  Provinces  of  Russia,  it  has  also  met  wnth  much 
appreciation. 

68.  As  regards  the  history  of  the  individual  Motherhouses,  it 
can  only  be  considered  here,  in  so  far  as  it  is  characteristic  for  the 
general  development  of  the  work,  and  therefore  of  immediate 
interest. 

Kaiserswerth  is  and  Avill  remain  the  Motherhouse  of  all 
Motherhouses.  It  embraces  all  branches  of  the  female  diaconate, 
with  the  single  exception  of  church-ornamentation.  In  addition 
to  all  varietres  of  siok-nursing  and  parish-work,  Kaiserswerth  has 
cultivated  the  educational  features  of  the  diaconate  in  every  pos- 
sible direction.  In  Kaiserswerth  itself,  ten  daughter  institutions 
are  connected  with  the  Motherhouse,  among  them  an  Asylum  and 
Magdalen  Home,  a  Little  Children's  School,  with  a  Seminary  for 
teachers  of  such  schools,  a  Hospital,  an  Orphanage  for  girls,  a 
Seminary  for  teachers  of  elementary  and  high-grade  schools,  a 
Sanatorium  for  Protestant  insane  women,  a  Preparatory  Deaconess 
School,  a  Home  for  feeble  and  invalid  single  women  and  widows, 
and  a  high-grade  school  for  girls,  Kaiserswerth  furthermore 
possesses  fourteen  branch  institutions  in  different  parts  of  Ger- 
many, and  eleven  outside  of  Germany  ;  among  these  lieing  servants' 
training  schools  and  lodging-houses,  one  German  and  several 
foreignelementary  schools  for  girls,  rest-stations  for  the  deaco- 
nesses, &c.  As  regards  enthusiastic  delight  in  the  work,  the  most 
varied  practical  efficiency,  carefulness  and  self-denial  of  the  deaco- 


—  71    — 

Dess  service  in  each  and  every  direction,  Kaiser swerth  is  and  will 
continue  to  be  the  mother-soil,  upon  which,  and  in  contact  with 
which,  the  workers  in  the  deaccmess  cause  receive  continually 
new  strength.  This  is  an  experience  which  moves  to  gratitiide  ail 
who  from  time  to  time  visit  Kaiserswerth,  either  during  the  General 
Conference,  or  for  the  purpose  of  learning,  at  other  seasons. 

The  Elizabeth  Hospital  in  Berlin  was  founded  by  Gossner, 
the  gifted  pastor  of  the  Bohemian  congregation  in  that  city. 
From  the  Roman  Catholic  communion,  to  which  he  in  his  youth 
belonged,  he  had  brought  with  him  an  appreciation  of  woman's 
ministry  in  the  Church,  especially  in  the  care  of  the  sick.  Very 
soon  in  the  course  of  his  far-reaching  activity,  he  undertook  the 
training  of  protestant  sick-nurses,  or  Sisters  of  Mercy,  whom  how- 
ever, he  did  not  wish  to  have  called  deaconesses.  Gossner  was  a  very 
independent  man.  Everywhere,  and  in  all  things,  he  insisted  upon 
Scriptural  truth,  but  he  had  little  understanding  for  fixed  forms, 
and  even  dreaded  them.  As  in  his  missionary  efforts,  so  in  his 
deaconess  House,  he  himself  was  the  living  rule  and  standard  for 
all  things.  This  led  to  disastrous  consequences,  especially  after 
his  death.  For  a  long  time  the  Elizabeth  Hospital  was  unable  to 
obtain  an  established  Sisterhood.  Only  since  the  House,  in  1867, 
was  led  into  the  path  of  the  Kaiserswerth  order,  has  it  enjoyed, 
inwardly  and  outwardly,  a  continued  and  prosperous  growth.  The 
history  of  this  House  may  .serve  as  an  instructive  example  for 
more  or  less  intelligent  attempts  at  the  independent  organization 
of  Motherhouses. 

The  Deaconess  House  at  Strasburg  in  Alsace  was  called  into 
life  by  Pastor  Haerter, — a  man,  in  whose  thoughtful  mind  a  deep 
yearning  after  heavenly  things  was  joined  to  the  liveliest,  practical 
appreciation  of  the  needs  of  the  Church  on  earth.  His  watchword 
was  :  "For  me  to  live  is  Christ ;  to  die  is  gain."  The  Strasburg 
Motherhouse,  with  the  motto  of  its  foimder,  retained  also  his  idea  ot 
the  closest  possible  union  with  the  Church.  This  has  been  expressed 
in  the  arrangements  of '  the  Motherhouse,  in  which  the  Kaisers- 
werth order  is  adhered  to,  based  upon  the  most  strictly  "constitu- 
tional" foundation.  The  result  has  been,  that  this  House,  in  its 
model  organization  of  parish-work  at  Muelhouse  in  Alsace,  has 
been  permitted  to  become  a  j)attern  for  all  Motherhouses. 

The  Deaconess  House  "Bethany"  in  Berlin  is  a  foundation  of 
the  noble-hearted  King  Frederick  William  IV.,  who  while  still 
crownprince  of  Prussia  showed  a  warm  interest  in  churchly  things, 
including  the  deaconess- work.  Worthy  of  its  royal  founder,  tlie 
entire  style  of  the  house  is  upon  a  generous  scale.  The  administra- 
tion is  a  sort  of  "female  monarchy."  In  Bethany,  hospital-nursing 
especially  has  been  brought  to  a  very  high  degree  of  perfection. 
In    regard    to   the  principles,   by  which  the  position  of  the  dea- 


—  72  — 

coness   in    the  ('ono;rc'gati()n  is  regulated,  tliis  House  also,  through 
its  standing  and  influence,  has  become  tvj)ieal. 

Finally,  we  will  mention  two  Motherhouses,  which  are 
distinguished  from  those  above-mentioned  by  tlie  tact  that  the  one 
originated  upon  strictly  Lutheran,  the  other  upon  decidedly  Re- 
formed soil.     These  are  the  Houses  at  Neuendcttelsau  and  Jk'rne. 

The  Deaconess  House'  at  Xeucndettelsau  is  a  foundation  of 
the  eminent  pastor  W.  Loehe,  who  as  one  of  the  mightiest  preachers 
and  most  exquisitely  gifted  liturgists  of  all  time,  was  especially 
called  to  set  before  our  century  in  a  vivid  manner,  the  glory  of 
the  Lutheran  Church  and  her  confessions.  The  deaconess  work  in 
Neuendcttelsau  began  with  a  society  for  the  jiromotion  of  the  fe- 
male diaconate,  without  however  making  experiences  similar  to 
those  of  the  Elizabeth  Hospital  in  Berlin.  Loehe  soon  gave  to 
the  undertaking  a  firm,  institutional  construction,  whose  funda- 
mental rules  became  the  same  as  those  of  Kaiserswerth.  In  addi- 
tion, Loehe's  personal  characteristics  and  talents  greatly  contributed 
to  the  enrichment  of  the  deaconess- work.  His  original  idea  was,  in 
a  reformative  manner,  to  direct  the  life  of  christiau  Avomanhood 
generally  into  nobler  paths.  This  idea  he  endeavored,  within  the 
narrow  bounds  of  the  deaconess  House,  to  realize  as  far  as  possible. 
In  Neuendcttelsau,  in  addition  to  practical  efficiency,  the  mental  and 
spiritual  culture  of  the  Sisters  received  most  careful  nurture.  To 
this  end  served  the  regular  preaching  and  instruction,  the  rich, 
liturgical  form  of  worship,  and  the  emphasis  laid  upon  noble  sim- 
plicity and  sanctified  beauty  of  form  in  all  the  relations  of  woman's 
life.  Neuendcttelsau  is  the  first  Deaconess  Institution,  in  which 
the  psalmody  again  found  a  home.  While  in  Kaiserswerth,  church- 
ornamentation  is  not  practised,  I^oehe,  by  this  branch  of  the 
service,  established  for  the  beautifying  of  the  sanctuary,  and  for 
the  jov  and  honor  of  the  Church,  has  woven  into  the  deaconess  life 
one  of  its  loveliest  blossoms,  and  has  convincingly  proven,  that  in 
woman's  ministry  to  the  body  of  the  Lord,  Mary,  with  her  box  of 
precious  ointment,  must  forevermore  keep  her  place.  It  may  be 
characterized  as  Loehe's  abiding  merit,  that  he  firmly  established 
the  female  diaconate  upon  God's  Word,  and  greatly  promoted  its 
fine  appreciation  of  details,  as  well  as  its  christian  ideality. 

In  contrast  to  Neuendcttelsau  the  Deaconess  House  in  Berne 
came  into  being  almost  out  of  touch  with  the  Church  and 
the  pastoral  office.  The  peculiarities  of  republican  Switzerland,  and 
of  the  reformed  faith,  do  not  forbid  the  adoption  by  this  and  other 
strictly  Reformed  Motherhouses,  ot  the  practical  organization  of 
Kaiserswerth.  The  House  in  Berne  owes  its  origin  to  a  noble 
circle  of  patricians,  Avho  first  caused  the  establishment  of  a  Wo- 
men's Society.  When  this  society  endeavored  to  obtain  for  its 
purposes  a  hospital,  there  was  a  difference  of  opinion,  as  to  whether 


—  73  — 

it  should  be  "constitutionally  or  monarchically"  governed.  A  highly 
gifted  member  of  the  society,  Miss  Sophie  Wurstemberger  was  in 
favor  of  the  latterform.  She  had  for  years  striven  to  "break  through 
the  rigid  orthodoxy"  prevailing  in  her  aristocratic  home,  and  "to 
penetrate  to  the  enjoyment  of  full  grace".  When  she  found  herself 
alone  in  her  views,  she  withdrew  from  the  association,  and  through 
her  connection  with  Baron  Bunsen,  was  induced  to  visit  London. 
During  her  journey  she  became  acquainted  with  'Fliedner  and 
Kaiserswerth ;  and  had  frequent  intercourse  with  Elizabeth  Fry. 
In  the  meantime,  the  dispute  among  the  ladies  in  Berne  had 
been  settled,  by  their  agreeing,  after  continued  prayer,  to  leave  the 
decision  entirely  to  the  Lord,  and  to  ascertain  His  Will  "by  draw- 
ing lots".  This  decided  in  favor  of  the  "monarchy",  which  was 
accordingly  offered  to  Miss  Wurstemberger  upon  her  return.  Being 
left  wholly  without  encouragement  from  her  relatives,  the  beginning 
was  very  trying  to  her;  but  in  the  course  of  time,  her  path  became 
smoother.  Her  devotional  exercises  in  the  hospital  made  a  strong 
impression  upon  the  patients.  "Many  had  never  heard  the  Lord 
so  earnestly  proclaimed.  His  Spirit  acted  powerfully  upon  the 
hearts  of  many  of  the  sufferers.  Many  found  peace,  and  thence- 
forward walked  in  communion  with  the  living  Saviour."  Yet  it 
was  not  until  three  years  later  (1845)  that  the  first  probationers 
entered.  In  ten  years  the  Sisterhood  numbered  only  seven.  After  the 
marria^  of  Miss  Wurstemberger  with  Mr.  Dandlicker,  of  Berne, 
the  House  made  rapid  strides,  both,  as  housefather  and  housemother 
placing  their  considerable  fortunes  at  the  service  of  the  Institution. 
At  present,  as  regards  the  number  of  its  Sisters,  it  ranks  as  fourth 
among  all  the  Motherhouses.  It  is  incorporated,  but  still  con- 
tinues to  be  governed  as  a  large  private  family,  at  whose  head  stand 
the  housefather  and  housemother,  and  in  which  the  pastoral  office,  as 
such,  has  as  yet  not  found  a  place. 

69.  This  short  sketch  of  the  history  of  six  among  the  oldest 
Motherhouses,  is  sufficient  to  characterize  in  general  the  methods, 
by  which  the  deaconess  cause  in  the  protestant  churches  reached 
its  present  extent  and  importance.  Each  individual  Motherhouse 
has  its  own  peculiarities,  and  these  are  conditioned  in  a  great  mea- 
sure by  the  personal  character  of  the  individual  who  first  exerted 
an  enduring  influence  upon  its  development.  The  locality  must 
also  be  taken  into  account,  whether  city  or  country,  whether  a 
large  town  or  a  small  one,  as  well  as  the  closer  or  more  distant  re- 
lations to  municipal  or  churchly  organizations.  National  pecu- 
liarities and  the  political  life  also  exert  at  times  a  very  perceptible 
influence.  Most  especially  does  the  confessional  position  of  the 
individual  houses  express  itself  in  the  life  and  habits  developed 
there.  In  addition,  it  must  be  taken  in  consideration,  whether  the 
management    inclines   to    the    "constitutional,"    or    more    strictly 


—  74  — 

"inoimiN'liical"  order.  We  will  he  pardoned  for  thus  expressing 
it,  as  we  have  no  better  or  more  accurate  term.  For  the  rest,  it 
must  he  said,  that  in  the  Motherlionses  the  ])iactical  recjuirements 
are  far  more  potent  and  inHuential,  than  any  statutory    j)rovisions. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  and  excepting  outward  titles,  the  manage- 
ment in  all  Motherhouses  is  almost  identical,  and  is  shared  between 
a  male  and  female 'superior.  All  deaconess  houses  are  excluded 
from  the  Kaiserswcrth  Union,  whose  administration  is  solely  in 
the  hands  of  either  a  man  or  a  woman.  It  is  one  of  the  funda- 
mental rules  of  the  Motherhouses,  that  in  the  government  of  the 
house,  man  and  woman,  as  divinely  ordered,  must  su})plement  each 
other;  because  only  where  this  is  the  case,  a  healthy  diaconate  is 
possible,  and  those  conditions  are  supplied,  without  which  the  fe- 
male diaconate  would  possess  small  value  for  the  churchly  com- 
munity. In  reviewing  the  different  Motherhouses  in  all  their 
diversity,  we  wall  find  1;hat  Kaiserswerth  is  everywhere  to  be  recog- 
nized as  the  model.  Beside  Fliedner,  of  the  first  importance  to 
the  deaconess  cause,  Loehe  stands  prominent ;  his  influence  is 
unmistakable  in  most  of  the  houses  belonging  to  the  Lutheran 
Church.  Finally,  the  example  of  "Bethany"  in  Berlin  may  be 
quoted  here,  as  w'ell  for  its  general  activity  as  for  particular  features, 
introduced  by  its  rector,  Pastor  Schulz.  If  w^e  consider  these  three 
Institutions  as  types,  we  can  readily  recognize  in  the  individual 
houses  the  prevalence  of  one  or  the  other,  without  detriment  to  the 
predominant  importance  of  the  oldest  house. 

70.  We  will,  in  the  first  place,  examine  more  closely  the  or- 
ganization of  the  Motherhouses.  With  very  few  exceptions,  the 
persons  entrusted  with  the  immediate  management  of  the  house 
are  a  pastor  and  a  deaconess.  Whether  both  have  equal  authority, 
whether  one  is  subordinated  to  the  other,  how  and  to  what  extent 
they  are  answerable  to  other  managers,  are  points  upon  which,  as 
has  been  said  above,  divergences  exist.  The  titles  also  vary.  The 
clergyman  is  either  merely  the  pastor  of  the  institution,  or  at  the 
same  time  superintenderat,  rector  or  inspector.  The  deaconess  who 
superintends  the  household,  especially  in  North  German  houses, 
and  in  those  of  a  Lutheran  character,  bears  the  title  of  "Superior" 
("Oberin"  and  "Fran").  In  the  South,  the  title  of  "superintend- 
ing Sister"  is  often  preferred.  The  proper  relation  between  these 
tw^o  persons  must  not  be  that'of  actual  subordination  on  either  side  ; 
least  of  all  would  the  subordination  of  the  man  to  the  woman  be 
justifiable,  this  being  contrary  to  God's  Word.  The  most  suitable 
arrangement  is,  to  assign  to  each  of  the  superintending  persons  an 
independent  province  ;  while  upon  common  territory,  the  male  voice 
should  give  the  decision,  unless  there  is  an  insuperable  difference  of 
opinion.     Experience  shows  that,  upon  thewdiole,  the  gifts  of  both 


liy  — 


so  supplement  each  other,  that  the  adjustment  of  opinions  results  as 
a  matter  of  course.     In   detail,   fixed  rules  cannot  be  laid  down. 
Both    are    answerable    to  God,    and  bound  to    work  together   in 
harmony.     The  special  province  of  the  pastor,   superintendent   or 
rectt-r  is  the  churchly,  spiritual  and  intellectual  care  of  the  house, 
the  theoretical  instruction  of  the  Sisters,  the  consecralioh  of  deaco- 
nesses, the  business  transactions  with  outside  authorities  and  asso- 
ciations, and  the  preparation  of  such  periodicals  and  reports  as  are 
published  by  the  house.  Tlie  duties  assigned  to  the  female  superin- 
tendent or  superior,  are  those  of  housemother  and  immediate  su- 
perior of  the  Sisters.     She  has  charge  of  the  Sisters'   practical  edu- 
cation for  their  calling ;  she  is  responsible  for  the  management  of 
the  household ;  she  supervises  and  regulates  the  work  of  the  Sisters, 
the  placing  and  the  care  of  the  sick,  and    enforces   the    observance 
of  the    rules    of  the    House.     She    will    also  keep  the  books  and 
accounts    of  the    House,   while  the    pastor  has  the    right   of  re- 
vision.      Both    together   decide    upon    the   admission,    induction, 
consecration  and  dismissal  of  probationers  and  deaconesses ;  upon 
the  stationing  of  Sisters,  upon  the  regulations  and  instructions  to 
be  adopted  for  the  Sisters  and  the  House,  upon  the  undertaking  or 
relinquishing  fields  of  labor.     The  medical  education  of  the  Sisters, 
as  well  as  the  medical  treatment  of  the  sick  in  the  hospital  which 
must  be  connected  with  the  Institution,  for  the  training  of  the  Sisters 
is  usually  entrusted  to  a  specially  appointed  physician.  The  Board 
of  Directors  represents  the  House  in  its  property-holding  capacity, 
and  appoints  the  pastor,  the  Sister  Superior  and  the  physician.    By 
this  power,  which  of  course  includes  that  of  dismissal,  the  board  of 
directors  preserves  a  sufficient  influence  upon  the  inner  development 
of  the  House.    Where  the  board  seeks  by  its  resolutions  to  regulate 
the  actual  domestic  management  and  work,  such  a  procedure  will 
either  render  the  administration   much   more  difficult,    or   it    will 
prove  to  be  more  a  semblance  than  a  reality.     The  existing  church 
authorities  may  be  given  a  certain  measure  of  influence  in  the 
Board,  which  will  not  fail  to   be    more    or    less    noticeable    in  the 
character  of  the    House.      As    already  intimated,  even   in    those 
Motherhouses,  whose  printed   reguhitions    ma>'    difl'er    essentially 
from  the  above,  the  division  of  labor  will   practically   be  pretty 
much    the    same.     In    the    interest    of  christian    truth,   however, 
and  to    avoid   temptations  and   inconsistencies,  the    letter    of  the 
written   law    must    not    be    undervalued  in  this    connection.      If 
the  early  beginnings  of  certain  Motherhouses  made  it  imperative 
that  man  and  wife   should    at  first    hold  the  positions  of  house- 
father and  housemother,  this  is  by  no  means  to  be  regarded  as  a 
rule,  but  as  an  exception,  which  cannot  be  of  continuance.  That  the 
persons  in  authority  should  bear  parental  relations  to   the  Sister- 


—  7fi   — 

hood,  is  clearly  a  matter  of  course.    To  deduce  from  it  a  title,  must 
as  a  rule  he  cousidered  a  mistake. 

71.  luasmuch  as  tiie  deaconesses  of  our  day  couie  forth  from 
Motherhouses  as  above  described,  they  dlfcr  from  the  dcaeone.sseis 
of  the  curly  Chureh.  These  came  directly  frcmi  the  coni>;regation, 
and  in  their  ministry  usually  remained  identified  with  the  congre- 
gation, from  which  they  had  sprung;.  The  present  deaconesses,  on 
the  contrary,  are  sent  out  from  their  Mothcrliouses  to  the  places 
where  their  services  are  needed  ;  and  even  though  they  labor  at  a 
distance,  yet  they  continue  in  close  connection  with  the  Mother- 
house.  They  receive  from  it  the  instructions,  by  which  their  general 
service  is  regulated,  and  as  it  sends  them  out,  so  it  recalls  them. 
The  individual  parish  or  institution,  in  which  they  are  to  labor, 
negotiates  with  the  Motherhouse,  and  receives  from  it  the  deaco- 
nesses, without  individuals  being  named.  The  contract  is  made 
for  the  "Sister",  not  for  the  person.  The  majority  of  the  Mother- 
houses  have  originated  and  are  supported  by  voluntary  christian 
charity,  by  associations  and  corporations,  which  have  little  or  no 
official  connection  with  the  authorities  of  Church  and  State.  As 
matters  are  in  the  existing  State-churches,  a  change  in  this  direction 
is  not  desirable.  It  is  questionable,  whether  the  Motherhouses  could 
endure  it,  were  the  voluntary  character  of  their  work  of  faith  and 
charity  taken  away.  This  is  not  in  contradiction  with  the  develop- 
ment of  an  active  system  of  reciprocity  between  the  church  authori- 
ties and  the  Motherhouses.  The  more  fully  the  Motherhouses,  as 
free  institutions,  enter  into  organic  union  with  the  Church,  the 
more  gratifying  and  profitable  will  their  labors  be. 

The  question  has  been  asked,  whether  the  female  diaconate  ot 
the  present  day,  in  the  form  in  which  it  has  been  realized  by  means 
of  the  Motherhouses,  is  to  be  understood  as  a  churchly  office.  The 
question  has  been  answered  in  the  affirmative  by  Kaiserswerth  and 
other  Motherhouses.  Fliedner  is  termed  the  restorer  of  the  Diaconate 
of  the  early  Church,  or  of  the  "Apostolic  Diaconate".  Protest  has 
been  entered  here,  especially  on  the  part  of  the  Lutheran  Mother- 
houses.  An  office  is  a  legally  ordered  condition,  in  which  strictly 
prescribed  duties  and  privileges  counterbalance  each  other.  Such  an 
office  was  the  diaconate  of  the  early  Church  ;  and  the  position  of 
our  deaconesses,  in  parishes  and  institutions,  often  approaches  very 
nearly  to  such  an  official  standing.  But  upon  the  ^vhole,  the  dea- 
conesses of  the  present  time  are  not  office-holders  of  the  Church. 
They  cannot  be,  if  for  no  other  reason,  than  that  their  appointment 
and  installation  into  public,  official  connections  never  refers  to 
the  individual,  as  such.  It  must  be  conceded  that,  practically 
viewed,  the  modern  female  diaconate  is  and  desires  to  be  no  other 
than  was  that  of  the  early  Church,  in  so  far  as  it  observed  the  lines 
laid  down  by  the  Word   of   God.     It    is    therefore    questionable. 


—  I  i   — 


whether  we  have  the  right  to  extend  the  idea  of  the  office  in  the 
churchly  sense,  beyond  tts  legal  acceptation.  If  the  question  is 
answered  in  the  affirmative,  then  the  voluntary,  officially  or- 
ganized service,  rendered  by  the  Motherhouses  through  their 
members,  may  likewise  be  termed  a  scriptural  office  of  the 
Church,  to  which  the  deaconess  knows  herself  to  be  firmly 
bound  in  the  Lord  who  called  her.  For  the  rest,  our  Mother- 
houses,  like  the  household  of  Stephanas  (1.  Cor.  16,  15),  have 
voluntarily  "addicted  themselves  to  the  ministry"  of  cnarity ; 
and  this  conditions  the  outward  standing  of  our  deaconesses.  The 
only  exception  in  favor  of  a  complete,  organized  incorporation  of 
deaconesses  into  the  official  church  organization,  seems  to  be  found 
in  the  Church  of  England,  especially  where  it  is  under  ritualistic 
influence.  In  England,  the  deaconess  cause  has  found  favor,  es- 
pecially in  high-church  circles,  while  the  dissenting  elements  seem 
averse  to  it.  Among  the  former  it  appears  to  be  loved  as  "a  catholic 
institution",  while  among  the  latter  it  is  avoided  for  the  same  reason. 
The  one  mistake  is  calculated  to  produce  the  other.  It  remains  to 
be  seen,  whether  the  English  deaconess  institution,  standing  under 
immediate  episcopal  guidance  and  management,  will  have  a 
successful  future,  and  whether  the  Rome-ward  tendency  will  not 
bear  disastrous  fruits.  It  is  not  to  be  imagined  how,  in  other 
protestant  communions,  the  Motherhouses  could  exist  otherwise 
than  as  based  upon  voluntary  effort.  The  associated  activity  must 
replace  what  the  official  church-life  lacks  in  energy  of  faith  and 
mobility.  Yet  all  this  renders  the  more  apparent  the  essential  dif- 
ference, in  regard  to  the  official,  churchly  institution,  between  the 
female  diaconate  of  the  present,  and  that  of  the  post-apostolic 
period. 

72.  In'  observing  this  difference,  it  cannot  be  denied  that  in  a 
general  way,  the  method  of  the  early  Church  was  the  more 
ideal.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Motherhouses  have  their  own  ad- 
vantages. Practical  experience,  to  which  thus  far  no  sufficient 
contrary  experience  has  been  opposed,  leads  us  to  consider  the  form 
of  the  Motherhouses  as  the  only  one,  in  which  in  our  day  a  public 
churchly  ministry  of  women  can  exist.  We  have  previously  shown, 
how  the  consideration  of  history  leads  to  the  same  result.  And 
inasmuch  as  this  form  is  for  us  the  only  one  possible,  it  likewise 
follows,  that  it  is  the  best.  The  advantages  of  the  Motherhouses 
can  be  briefly  enumerated.  They  are  more  or  less  the  outcome  of 
the  special  form  of  christian  and  churchly  community  of  faith  and 
calling  there  attainable. 

The  Motherhouses  are  small,  religious  communities  within  nar- 
row limits,  in  which,  upon  the  basis  of  voluntary  union  among  their 
members,  the  churchly  life  is  able  to  unfold  itself  in  greater  purity, 
richness  and  consistency  than   in  the   larger  public  congregations, 


—  78  — 

which  are  formed  upon  au  entirely  different  phni.  The  confessions  of 
the  Church  obtain  unreserved  recojrnition.  The  beauty  of  worship, 
the  frequency  and  variety  of  the  services,  the  abundant  ])r(achinjij 
of  the  Word,  tiie  efficacy  of  the  ordinances,  and  many  otlier 
treasures  from  the  wealth  of  a  more  believintr  ])ast,  here  rec(Mve 
loving  nurture  These  small  communities  are  thus  able  to  afford  a 
churchlt/  trainiiu/,  such  as  is  not  easily  found  elsewhere.  It  would 
scarcely  be  necessary  to  insist  upon  the  great  value  of  this  feature^ 
were  it  not,  that  many  protestant  communions  have  lost  the  realiza- 
tion of  the  educational  power,  inherent  in  a  carefully  conducted 
and  richly  developed  worship. 

Special  weight  must  furthermore  be  placed  upon  the  healthful 
influence  of  religious  association,  for  which  the  foundation  is  laid 
in  the  Motherhouses.  All  good  and  genuine  association  exerts  an 
educational  and  refining  influence.  Therefore  the  Christians  of  all 
times  have  sought  to  establish  closer  communities.  But  we  would 
fall  into  the  most  dangerous  error,  if  we  thus  externalized  the  pri- 
vacy of  personal  faith,  by  trying  to  establish  without  further  pre- 
paration visible  "Communions  of  Saints".  In  addition  to  the 
churchly  union  of  confession,  worship  and  sacrament,  it  is  the 
Christian  communion  of  work  and  calling,  which  alone  affords 
a  wholesome  center  for  a  union  of  faith.  Both  are  found  side 
by  side  in  the  Motherhouses.  Sectarian  narrowness,  which  makes 
a  carrieature  of  the  community,  and  undisciplined  laxity,  which 
robs  the  community  of  its  strength,  are  equally  absent.  All 
matters  are  judged  by  the  Word  of  God,  and  to  it  all  the  members 
are  subject.  Such  association  is  an  invaluable  means  of  personal^ 
spiritual  progress,  and  Christian  development  of  cliarader  This,  to 
be  sure,  is  not  what  many  imagine,  being  above  all,  no  life  of  mere 
religious  enjoyment. 

It  is  furthermore  clear,  that  the  Motherhouses,  as  religious 
working  associations,  afford  the  opportunity  of  a  practical  and  theo- 
retical training  for  the  deaconesses,  which  would  otherwise  be  unat- 
tainable. Such  training  is  indispensable  in  our  day,  if  the  female 
diaconate  would  lay  claim  to  the  general  confidence.  This  is  pri- 
marily true  of  the  care  of  the  sick,  yet  it  is  equally  the  case  in 
other  relation.s.  In  the  Motherhouses,  a  tradition  of  service  is  de- 
veloped. One  Sister  learns  from  another.  The  physician,  the  Sis- 
ter Superior,  the  pastor,  impart  to  the  deaconesses  a  technical  educa- 
tion, which  is  the  result  of  continuous,  diligent  labor,  of  careful  ob- 
servation, experience  and  practice.  Without  places  of  education, 
wholly  devoted  to  this  object,  there  can  be  no  adequate  training 
of  deaconesses. 

As  regards  the  utilization  of  the  various  gifts  of  the  deaconess- 
es, the  Motherhouses  offer  exceptional  advantages.  In  the  Sister- 
hood, each  individual  is  not  called  upon   to  serve  in   every  branch 


—  79  — 

of  the  calling,  but  each  one  can  be  placed  where,  according  to  the 
measure  of  her  ability,  her  efforts  will  be  most  successful.  Many 
an  one,  whose  unaided  efforts  would  avail  little,  in  connection 
with  others  accomplishes  excellent  results.  In  the  community  of 
the  Motherhouse,  the  one-sided  employment  of  a  special  faculty  is 
avoided.  To  one,  whose  strength  has  for  a  long  period  been  strained 
in  one  direction,  change  of  work  is  a  relief.  Accurate  acquaintance 
on  the  part  of  the  superiors  with  the  individual  persons,  and  a  va- 
riety of  duties,  unite  to  secure  to  the  work  the  most  abundant  re- 
sults, and  to  tlie  worker  tlie  longest  possible  period  of  usefulness. 
When  a  Motherhouse  has  the  good  fortune,  to  see  represented 
among  its  members  women  of  all  ranks  and  all  degrees  of  education, 
reflecting  on  a  small  scale,  tlie  whole  of  Christian  womanhood,  the 
Sisters  will  find  in  this  variety  a  richness  and  mutual  stimulus, 
whicli  cannot  be  too  highly  estimated.  There  they  can  learn  how 
in  C'hrist  "the  whole  body  fitly  joined  together  and  compacted  by 
that  which  every  joint  supplieth,  according  to  the  effectual  working 
in  the  measure  of  every  part,  maketh  increase  of  the  body  unto 
the  edifying  of  itself  in  love".     (Eph,  4,  16  ) 

Besides  the  advantages  cited,  and  chiefly  concerning  inner 
affairs,  the  fact  must  be  emphasized,  that  the  Motherhouses  afford 
the  deaconesses  outward  proiedion  and  support,  over  against  the 
world ;  and  a  quiet,  peaceable  and  yet  spiritually  active  retreat  in 
times  of  incapacity  or  old  age.  The  dress  likewise,  which  char- 
acterizes the  Sisters  as  members  of  the  House,  and  as  upon  an  equa- 
lity among  themselves,  is  a  ■  protection,  as  well  outwardly  as 
against  all  secret  enemies  of  the  personal  and  associated  life. 
And  as  it  outwardly  equalizes  the  Sisters,  diflering  so  widely  as  to 
birth,  education  and  talents,  so  it  affords  them  the  most  elfective 
introduction  and  recommendation  amid  the  various  relations  into 
which  they  are  brought  by  their  service.  Therefore  this  dress  is 
copied  by  preterence  by  the  secular  trained  nurses,  a  circumstance, 
which,  although  inconvenient  to  the  deaconess  cause,  yet  certainly 
indicates  a  recognition  of  its  value. 

Finally,  it  may  be  emphasized,  that  the  Motherhouses,  by  their 
firm  and  well-developed  churchly  organization,  and  the  discipline 
observed  in  them,  are  alone  able  to  offer  those  guarantees,  without 
which  the  church,  as  such,  can  have  little  interest  in  the  female 
diaconate.  Indeed,  if  the  ministry  of  the  deaconess  in  the  con- 
gregation is  to  become  an  abiding  and  uniformly  operative  institu- 
tion, it  must  be  borne  up  by  an  organization  like  the  Motherhouse, 
and  not  by  individuals.  Moreover,  by  the  fact  that  the  Mother- 
house  holds  itself  responsible  for  its  members,  and  these  remain 
bound  to  it,  the  work  is  raised  so  far  above  any  possible  vicis- 
situdes, that  it  continues,  even  though  individuals  should  cause 
trouble,  or  have  to  be  excluded.     Woman's  public  ministry  in  the 


—   80   — 

cluircli  is  of  so  delicate  a  nature,  that  without  the  institution  of  the 
Motherhousos,  the  ciinrch  of  our  time  could  certainly  neither  foster 
nor  preserve  it,  and  indeed,  could  never  iiave  secured  it. 

73.  While  tiic  indispensablenessof  the  Motherhouse  is  obvious 
both  from  the  historical  and  practical  point  of  view,  it  remains  our 
duty  to  examine  the  objections  which  are  made  against  this  form 
of  the  female  diaconate,  occasionally  even  by  persons  a])parently 
competent  to  judge.  We  can  best  do  this,  by  considering,  more 
carefully  than  has  been  done  hei^etofore,  the  differences  hrfireoi  jtro- 
tesfant  deaconesses  and  Homan  Catholic  sisfcrs  of  mercy.  IStrangely 
enough,  the  objections  against  the  jNIotherhouses  seem  to  be  made 
with  more  or  less  direct  reference  to  the  Romish  church. 

The  princijial  reproach  made  to  the  deaconess  houses,  is  that 
they  are  an  imitation  of  the  convents  of  the  sisters  of  men^v.  So 
much  is  true,  as  is  proved  by  our  presentation  of  the  matter,  that  the 
public  ministry  of  woman,  both  in  the  Romish  church  and  in  t5ur 
own,  is  based  upon  a  common  form,  which  originated  in  the 
church  before  the  Reformation, — that  of  a  voluntary,  close  associa- 
tion, sanctioned  by  the  church.  Does  this  furnish  cause  for  re- 
proach ?  We  think  the  contrary.  We  have  heard  how  Luther 
approved  of  this  form  of  the  associated  life, — when  it  accorded  to 
the  Word  of  God  the  place  which  belongs  to  it.  And  we  do  not 
hesitate  to  say,  that  it  is  a  defect  in  our  protestant  church-life, 
that  this  form  has  been  neglected  among  us.  As  a  result,  almost 
the  entire  burden  of  the  work  of  the  church  has  been  laid  upon 
the  clergy.  Many  other  matters .  have  had  to  suffer  neglect,  or 
perish.  While,  in  recognition  of  these  needs,  a  remedy  has  been 
sought  in  the  so-called  lay-activity  and  the  christian  associations 
for  inner  mission-work,  it  remains  a  burning  question,  whether 
these  forces,  instead  of  building  up  the  church,  will  not  exert  a 
disintegrating  and  destructive  influence  ?  As  far  as  we  can  see, 
the  solution  of  the  problem  lies  mainly  in  the  free,  churchly  asso- 
ciations of  the  deaconesses'  and  deacons'  institutions.  If  the  free, 
associative  activity  of  the  church  is  to  furnish  a  reliable  diaconate, 
this  activity  must  culminate  in  the  formation  of  closely-compacted 
communities,  carefully  organized  according  to  churchly  principles. 
These  communities,  as  circumstances  now  are  within  our  church, 
must,  in  essential  matters,  create  for  themselves  a  fixed  churchly 
organization.  Experience  shows  that  the  road  leads  to  the  goal, 
and  that  the  way  has  been  prepared.  We  hold,  that  the  formation 
prompted  by  faith,  of  free  religious  communities,  should  be  pro- 
moted and  favored  ',by  the  church  authorities.  If  a  church  is 
unable  to  give  place  in  her  midst  to  these  voluntary  organizations, 
or  in  some  way  to  incorporate  them  with  herself,  it  indicates  a  sad 
state  of  spiritual  impotence  and  want  of  adaptability.  There 
should  be  no  doubt  in  the  matter,  where  church  affairs  are  judged 


—  81  — 

from  a  churchly,  and  not  from  a  political  point  of  view.  This, 
however,  is  to  us  protestants,  from  force  of  habit,  more  difficult 
than  we  ourselves  know. 

But,  say  some,  in  the  communities  of  the  deaconess  Mother- 
houses  a  Romanistic  spirit  of  work-righteousness  may  easily  gain 
ground.  Attention  is  called  to  the  fact,  that  the  pietistic  and 
methodistic  tendencies  of  modern  belief,  in  connection  with  the 
zealous  performance  of  good  works  and  slight  insistance  upon 
doctrine,  actually  produce  various  dangerous  phenomena.  It  is 
possible.  In  the  deaconess  Motherhouses,  which  are  regulated 
more  strictly  than  any  existing  associations,  upon  churchly 
principles,  such  extravagances  will  be  least  observed.  This  as- 
surance we  can  confidently  give.  The  solicitude,  with  which 
the  faith  and  confession  of  the  Reformation  are  cherished,  the 
united  and  unreserved  submission  to  the  Word  of  God,  and  the 
habit  of  discipline,  resist  at  every  step  the  stirrings  of  self-righteous- 
ness. Ask,  if  anywhere  in  the  Motherhouses,  any  practice  openly 
contradictory  to  God's  Word  can  maintain  itself?  Were  any  such 
thing  discovered,  its  removal  would  be  immediate.  But  we  may 
safely  trust,  that  in  the  Motherhouses  themselves  all  eyes  are  open, 
and  nothing  is  more  feared,  than  an  unevangelical  spirit.  This  is 
true  in  great  things  and  small.  But,  they  urge,  even  though 
doctrine  and  confession  be  beyond  reproach,  yet  the  very  separa- 
tion, incident  to  the  associated  life,  is  a  dangerous  feature,  opposed 
to  the  evangelical  spirit.  Even  the  dress  of  the  Sister  suggests 
that  of  a  nun.  How  easily  may  iwt  a  spirit  of  caste  be  fostered,  a 
Romanistic  sense  of  a  condition  of  higher  perfection,  than  is  attain- 
able in  every  day  life?  We  have  heard  of  the  "deaconess  vanity", 
and.  not  always  without  justice, — but  it  will  be  conceded  that 
without  the  prescribed  dress,  the  close  association  would  be  im- 
practicable. But  we  have  furthermore  shown,  that  without  the  asso- 
ciation, the  deaconess,  as  a  class,  would  be  impossible.  And  if  we 
desire  to  retain  the  class,  the  class-spirit  dare  not  be  rejected. 
Among  teachers  and  pastors,  not  to  speak  of  secular  professions,  a 
certain  esprit-de-corps  is  regarded  a»  inevitable,  as  well  as  desirable. 
Deaconesses  also  must  know,  what  they  are,  if  they  are  to  know, 
what  they  are  not.  This  spirit  has  no  affinity  with  presumption 
or  vainglory,  but  it  is  highly  salutary  for  discipline  and  self- 
restraint  For  the  rest,  all  of  us  are  everywhere  only  human.  As 
regards  the  isolation  from  the  world,  which  the  Motherhouses  are 
said  to  promote,  there  are  many  features  in  the  churchly  conditions 
of  the  present,  which|itwere  pleasanter  not  to  contemplate.  Smaller 
communities,  in  which  a  more  active  religious  life  prevails,  have  at 
such  times  easily  become  the  homes  of  spiritual  pride.  If  to  the 
pressure  of  circumstances  is  added  a  certain  narrowness  of  mind, 
and  hostility  on  the   part  of  the   larger  communities,  this  danger 


—  .S2  — 

becomes  almost  fatal.  But  in  the  religious  life  aiul  in  tlio  calling  of 
the  deaconess  everything  unites  to  counteract  such  a  danger.  The 
light  of  the  Word  penetrates  into  every  iiiding-[)lace.  Tlie  calling 
itself,  s))ii-itMally  viewed,  is  a  school  of  liuinility  as  no  other.  The 
Mothcrhouses  owe  to  the  Church  to  which  they  belong,  all  their 
treasures  of  spiritual  life  and  churchly  custom.  The  fact  that  here 
these  treasures  are  often  found  gathered  together  in  great  ]irofiision, 
and  by  diligent  use  are  ke])t  bright  and  free  from  dust,  tends  solely 
to  increase  the  resjxmsibility,  which  the  Mothcrhouses  feel  as 
debtors  to  the  Church.  And  what  do  they  desire  further,  than  to 
serve  the  Church  ?  This  is  possible  only  when,  in  the  midst  of 
the  Church,  and  as  its  members,  they  vemain  actively  in  touch 
with  it. 

The  deaconess  Houses  founded  upon  the  doctrines  of  the 
Reformation,  exclude,  in  their  teachings  as  well  as  in  their  life, 
whatever  tends  to  Komanism — work-righteousness,  as  well  as  mo- 
nastic vows, — whatever  goes  beyond  God's  Word,  and  whatever  is 
contradictory  to  it.  Therefore  we  may  ignore  the  reproach  of  a 
Romanizing  tendency  ;  while  we  commend  the  associative  form, 
adopted  by  them,  to  the  Church,  as  especially  worthy  of  its  care. 
Many  pastors  are  dissatisfied,  that  the  deaconesses  who  labor  in 
their  parishes,  continue  in  a  measure  subject  to  the  authority  of 
their  Motherhouse.  The  cause  may  partly  be,  that  the  pastors, 
through  the  unfortunate  necessity  of  having  to  do  all  their  work 
unaided,  have  unlearned  to  rejoice  in  a  division  of  churchly 
labor.  It  ought  to  be  self-evident,  that,  as  regards  the  training,  the 
spiritual  requirements  and  the  work  of  the  deaconess,  outsiders 
should  be  content  to  claim  a  less  degree  of  experience,  than  is  pos- 
sessed by  the  directors  of  a  Motherhouse.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the 
Motherhouses  represent  a  province  of  practical  Christianity,  which 
does  not  reveal  itself  to  the  casual  glance  ;  into  which  experience 
alone  permits  a  deeper  insight ;  which  offers  problems,  such 
as  do  not  elsewhere  occur, — a  province,  in  which  the  most  ex- 
perienced have  still  much  to  learn.  Outsiders,  in  proportion  to 
their  own  spiritual  advancement,  should  appreciate  this  ;  and,  un- 
deterred by  jealousy  and  idle  questionings,  be  content,  if  the  female 
diaconate  fulfils  its  purpose,  as  a  humble  and  reliable  auxiliary 
to  the  pastoral  office. 

One  more  objection  must  be  met,  which,  although  of  a  dif- 
ferent nature  from  the  above,  is,  also  frequently  with  an  eye  to  the 
Roman  Catholic  sisters  of  mercy,  made  to  the  deaconess  houses. 
It  is,  that  the  deaconesses  accomplish  less  than  the  Romish  orders, 
or  at  least  do  not  enjoy  the  same  degree  of  general  popularity. 
This  reproach  is  made  by  the  very  persons,  who,  if  the  occasion 
offers,  with  great  protestant  self-consciousness,  accuse  the  Mother- 
houses  of  Romanizing  tendencies.  Both  accusations  show  in  reality, 


—  83  — 

that  the  Motherhouses  stand  firmly  upon  the  ground  of  their 
churchly  confession,  and  in  their  statutes  give  the  widest  possible 
miluence  to  the  Word  of  God.  The  sisters  of  mercy  are  very 
numerous,  and  for  proselyting  purposes,  their  most  capable  repre- 
sentatives are  sent  out  into  the  Protestant  districts.  The  Romish 
Church  moreover,  in  accordance  with  its  habit  of  adaptation 
to  the  natiu'al  man,  permits  to  the  sisters  of  mercy  a  sort  of  service, 
which  in  many  respects,  and  in  the  light  of  God's  Word,  appears 
unsuitable  for  deaconesses.  As  regards  the  work,  the  Protestant 
Sisters,  in  certain  Roman  Catholic  circles,  curiously  enough,  enjoy 
the  same  preference  as  is  frequently  accorded  the  Romish  Sisters  by 
Protestants.  We  admit  that  the  dearth,  especially  of  educated 
Sisters ;  the  numerous  difficulties,  churchly  and  otherwise,  that 
have  to  be  encountered  ;  the  criticism  and  prejudices  to  be  met  by 
the  Motherhouses,  from  believers  and  unbelievers  in  their  own 
Church,  do  not  make  it  easy  for  them  to  maintain  their  posi- 
ion  over  against  the  sisters  of  mercy.  Yet,  with  confidence  and  due 
humility,  we  may  affirm,  to  the  glory  of  God,  that  hitherto  they  have 
very,  successfully  maintained  this  position,  not  only  as  regards  the 
true  ministry  in  the  Gospel  spirit,  but  also  as  to  practical  efficiency. 
It  is  certain  that  spiritual  work  is  not  made  easier  in  this  world  by 
taking  the  Word  of  God  seriously.  The  Romish  orders,  owing  to 
their  vows,  and  to  their  general  conception  of  the  matter,  escape 
many  of  the  difficulties  which  beset  our  Motherhouses.  At  the 
same  time,  true  faith  need  fear  no  competition  from  error  or  from 
unbelief. 

The  double  reproach,  that  on  the  one  hand  the  deaconess 
houses  resemble  too  much  the  convents  of  the  sisters  of  mercy, 
and  yet  on  the  other  hand,  are  not  equal  to  them,  may  spring 
from  ignorance,  but  certainly  not  from  faithful  love  to  the  Church, 
the  pure  Word  and  Sacraments.  Where  this  love  is  found,  united 
with  proper  insight,  the  peculiar  dangers  and  difficulties  will  not 
be  ignored,  with  whicdi  the  Motherhouses  have  actually  to  contend, 
The  publiG  churchly  minidry  of  ivomen  certainly  is  not,  and  never 
will  he,  among  the  simplest  churchly  problems.  For  this  very  reason 
we  should  find  great  cause  for  gratitude  in  the  abundant  success 
and  blessing,  which  the  Lord  has  accorded  to  this  work,  after  it 
had  been  guided  into  the  right  path.  And  with  the  occasion 
for  gratitude  is  offi^red  that  of  more  faithful  intercession  and  co- 
operation. 

74.  We  have  compared  the  advantages  of  the  Motherhouses 
with  the  objections  urged  against  them,  and  have  shown,  how  the 
deaconesses  of  to-day  differ  from  those  ot  the  early  Church,  and 
from  the  sisters  of  mercy  of  the  Romish  Church.  The  question  now 
suggests  itself,  how  do  the  Motherhouses  of  the  different  Protestant 
Churches  stand  toward  each  other.     The  answer   is   both   easy  and 


—  84  — 

difficult  ;    difficult,   inasmuch  as  the  great  unity   of  principle  and 
practice  which   binds   together    the    Motherhouses,  must  not    be 
obscured    by    the   answer ;    and    yet   easy,    for    the   reason   that 
the  doctrinal  differences   are  and   remain   unmistakable,   notwith- 
standing the  levelling  tendency   of  our  time.     We  have  already 
called  attention  to  the  fact,  that  the  Motherhouses  embody  a  union 
which  is  sound,  because  there  is  in  it  no  thought  of  a  weakening 
of  the  churchly  confession.     On  the  contrary,  with  all  their  com- 
munity of  interests,  the  Motherhouses  show  themselves  very  sensi- 
tive to  confessional  differences.     They  may  be  classified  into  three 
principal  groups, — the  Reformed,    the  United  and  the   Lutheran 
Houses.     In  the  United   Houses,   the  tendency  toward  eitlier  the 
Lutheran  or  Reformed  Church  is  clearly    perceptible.     Sometimes 
the  doctrinal   view   is  more  Lutheran,   while  the  worship  is  more 
Reformed,  as  is  the  case  for  instance  at  Kaiserswerth.  The  strictly 
reformed  type,    Calvinistic  or  Zwinglian,  is  very  rare  in  our  day. 
Yet  the  spirit  of  the  reformed  belief  is  the  same  as  it  was  from  the 
beginning.  The  Scriptures  are  understood  in  a  more  legalistic  man- 
ner, the  "spiritual,  inner  life",  with  works  as  its  outward  expression, 
is  strongly  emphasized,  in  contrast  to  which  the  means  of  grace,  and 
especially  the  sacraments,  recede  into  the  background.  In  its  various 
deaconess  Houses  the  Lutheran  Church  has  abiding-places  of  the 
most  faithful  love  and  devotion  to  its  spirit.  The  thoroughness  of  its 
teachings,  the  scriptural  and  conservative  practice  ot  Lutheranism, 
exclude  all  methodistic  and  pietistic  tendencies.     In  order  to  avoid 
the  development  of  a  one-sided  over-activity,  a  very   thorough  in- 
tellectual  and   spiritual   education  of  the  deaconesses   is   insisted 
upon.     Loehe  said  that  the  deaconesses  must  be  among  the  most 
cultured  of  their  sex.     The  assurance  that  in  the  multiplicity  of  the 
work  the  one  thing    needful  will   not  be   lost  sight  of;    and    that 
the  practical    service   will    evermore  remain  true  to   its  purpose, 
— a  service   for    Jesus,    and  not   mere    philanthropy — is   found, 
among  Lutherans,  in  union  with  the   Church,  rather  than   in  the 
subjective   "spirituality"   of  individuals.      These   few   hints  may 
suffice.     We  rejoice  heartily  in  the  communion  of  ministering  love 
in  faith,  which  unites  the  protestant  Motherhouses,    while   it  in  no 
wise  impedes  the  cultivation  and  expression  of  churchly  character- 
istics. Only  a  very  superficial  observer  will  deny  that  the  character 
of  a  deaconess  community  is  greatly  influenced  by  the  latter.     May 
the  different  Motherhouses  faithfully  and  carefully  strive  with  each 
other  in  the  faith  for  that  pre-eminence  which  is  alone  permitted  in 
the  Church,  and  among  the  followers  of  the   Lord— pre-eminence 
in  the  humilitv  and  self-denial  of  ministering   love.      (Matth,   20, 
26.  27.) 


CHAPTER   IX. 

The  Dsaconess  Sisterhoods* 

75.  The  Deaconesses  of  a  Motherhouse  form  a  community,  a 
Sisterhood.  The  name  of  Sister,  by  which  Christian  custom 
addresses  the  deaconesses,  beautifully  expresses  the  communion  of 
faith,  in  which  they  stand.  Used  originally  toward  the  female 
members  of  the  Ciiurch,  and  still  customary  in  certain  religious 
circles  and  among  the  Moravians,  this  form  of  address  has,  in  our 
Motherhouses  as  well  as  among  the  Roman  Catholic  orders,  become 
the  customary  one.  A  simpler  and  more  suitable  name  for  the  deaco- 
ness cannot  be  imagined.  Together  with  the  prescribed  dress,  this 
name  wipes  out  all  differences  of  birth  and  position,  and  is  so  con- 
venient, that  it  has  been  adopted  by  the  secular  associations  for  sick- 
nursing.  Among  these  however,  it  is  robbed  of  its  original,  purely 
religious  meaning.  The  general  use  of  the  name  has  also  rendered 
it  more  difficult,  in  public  life  to  distinguish  the  deaconesses  of  the 
Church  from  the  professional  nurses,  who  stand  solely  upon  the 
ground  of  secular  philanthropy.  May  the  name  of  Sister  ever  re- 
mind the  deaconess,  that  in  all  her  labors  she  desires  to  serve  the 
Lord  alone,  in  whom,  by  the  communion  of  faith  and  baptism,  all 
are  called  as  members  of  His  Body,  to  the  communion  of  one  ser- 
vice, and  one  household. 

76.  In  order  to  gain  an  insight  into  the  classification  and  or- 
ganization of  the  Sisterhoods  in  our  Motherhouses,  we  will  follow  the 
steps,  by  which  the  deaconess  becomes  a  regular  member  of  the 
community.  To  be  sure,  these  steps  are  not  in  all  Houses  precisely 
the  same;  but  the  diiferences,  mostly  of  name  and  form,  are  so 
slight,  that  they  scarcely  need  to  be  considered.  We  distinguish  as 
steps  upon  the  w^ay,  the  entrance  into  the  3Iotherhouse,  the  period  of 
probation,  the  novitiate,  and  the  consecration  as  deaconess.  The 
term  "novice"  originated  in  the  Romish  Church.  In  some  Houses, 
the  Sisters  who  are  no  longer  probationers  are  called  "assistant 
Sisters";  but  there  is  no  reason  why  they  should  not  more  correctly 
be  termed  novices,  that  is,  beginners  in  the  deaconess  calling.  In 
some  Houses,  all  Sisters  are  called  probationers  until  their  conse- 
cration. And  such  they  are  in  reality.  But  it  is  obvious,  that  the 
first  year  after  their  entrance  is  in  an  especial  sense  to  be  regarded  as 
the  actual  season  of  probation.  As  a  rule,  a  Sister  does  not  receive 
consecration,  until  she  has  labored  in  the  calling  at  least  three  Or 


-   8G  — 

iour  vt'iirs.  During  the  time  between  the  close  of  her  actual  pro- 
bation and  her  consecration,  the  Sister  is  a  novice.  In  some  Mouses, 
the  first  weeks  of  the  year  of  probation  are  regarded  as  a  preliminary 
probation.  If  any  young  women,  preparatory  to  their  admission 
as  probationers,  wish  to  acquaint  themselves  more  closely  ^vith  the 
deaconess  work,  and  desire  an  ojij^ortunity  and  guidance  in  testing 
themselves,  their  own  strength  and  the  demands  of  the  calling, 
the  jSIotherhouses  will  cheerfully  receive  them  as  boarders  on  very 
reasonable  terms.  In  this  position  they  share  the  work  of  the  })ro- 
bationers,  yet  their  duties  can  be  lightened,  without  infringing 
the  rules  of  the  House,  and  especially  of  the  "probationers'  hall", 
the  sleeping  apartment  of  the  probationers.  If  they  decide  to  re- 
main, the  time  of  their  previous  stay  may,  in  its  due  proportion, 
be  deducted  from  their  term  of  ])robation. 

77.  The  terms  of  admission  for  probationers  to  the  Deaconess 
Motherhouses  ai'e  essentially  the  same  everywhere.  Single  women, 
unmarried  or  widowed,  desiring  to  become  deaconesses,  must  not,  as 
a  rule,  be  under  eighteen  or  over  thirty-six  y^ars  of  age.  Excep- 
tions may  of  course  occur.  Among  Avomen  of  considerable  mental 
culture  and  energy,  the  elasticity  of  mind,  which  adapts  itself  to 
the  requirements  made  by  the  Motherhouses  of  its  members,  is 
usually  greater,  even  at  a  more  advanced  age.  Yet  it  is  scarcely 
advisable,  to  go  beyond  the  fortieth  year.  If  the  habit  of  physical 
labor  is  wanting,  the  mental  vigor  and  activity  at  a  riper  age  should 
be  all  the  greater.  Some  Houses  have  established  special  prepara- 
torv  deaconess  schools  for  girls  under  eighteen.  Much  may  be  said 
both  for  and  against  these.  Young  aspirants  are  best  placed  in 
christian  families,  notably  in  pastor's  families,  wdiere  they  have 
opportunities  of  receiving  instruction.  The  advantage  of  this  ar- 
rangement is,  that  young  girls  will  not  enter  the  institutional  life 
too  early  ;  that  they  will  become  better  acquainted  with  the  ordinary 
conditions  of  life,  and  better  able  therefore,  to  examine  themsel- 
ves. Unfortunately,  it  is  not  always  possible  to  find  families,  who 
are  able  and  willing  to  render  the  Motherhouses  such  a  service  ot 
love.  In  individual  Motherhouses,  the  establishment  of  prepara- 
tory deaconess  schools  thus  becomes  unavoidable. 

The  question  as  to  the  age  most  suitable  within  the  above 
limits  for  entrance  into  the  deaconess  calling,  is  difficult  to  answer. 
There  are  some  natures,  who  at  a  very  early  age  possess  the  neces- 
sary clearness,  decision,  and  devotion  to  the  Lord's  service.  There 
are  instances  of  absolute  self-surrender,  which  are  exceedingly 
precious.  Some  undecided  natures,  by  long  waiting,  become  ever 
more  irresolute  and  hesitating.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  softie, 
who  require  a  long  time  to  ripen  inwardly,  and  to  gain  the  strength 
needed  for  any  great  resolve.     The  sage  advice  :  Not  too  old  and 


—  87  — 

not  too  young,  says  little.     God's  guidance  will  always  prove  itself 
the  best  wisdom. 

It  is  often  the  case,  that  the  measure  of  i)hysical  strength,  re- 
quired for  the  deaconess  calling,  is  overrated.  Generally,  a 
physician's  certiticate,  that  the  aspirant  is  not  afflicted  with  any 
chronic  ailment,  which  would  unfit  her  for  the  work,  is  sufficient. 
Chlorosis  and  nervous  troubles,  both  of  them  the  root  of  many  dis- 
orders, are  often  effectually  overcome  by  the  deaconess'  life.  It  often 
seems  simply  marvellous,  what  results  can  be  accomplished  by 
apparently   very  delicate  women,  if  only  they  are  willing. 

As  regards  the  mental  and  spiritual  requirements  to  be  made 
of  applicants  for  admission  to  the  deaconess  House,  the  foremost 
condition  is  an  absolutely  blameless  reputation.  If  the  good  name  of 
a  woman  has  suffered,  her  relations  toward  the  Lord,  in  the  matter 
of  faith  and  repentance,  may  be  tlie  right  ones,  but  for  the  deaconess 
calling  she  has  become  impossible.  The  question,  whether  persons 
of  illegitimate  birth  can  become  deaconesses,  must  be  decided  in 
every  individual  case.  The  exact  measure  of  education  to  be  de- 
manded of  a  probationer,  cannot  be  determined.  Some  knowledge 
of  woman's  handiwork  and  an  ordinary  school  education  are  desir- 
able, yet  intelligence  and  industry  supply  much  that  is  wanting  in 
this  direction,  A  deaconess  cannot  have  learned  too  much,  cannot 
be  too  well  educated.  Yet  sometimes  those,  who  originally  stood 
upon  a  very  low  plane  of  education,  have  in  a  few  years  made 
astonishing  progress.  Intercourse,  the  duties  of  the  calling,  study, 
and  above  all,  the  christian  community,  and  the  abundant  religious 
life,  co-operate  in  the  advancement  of  the  deaconess.  The  chief 
requisite  however  is,  that  the  proper  christian  condition  of  heart 
should  have  been  attained. 

As  a  matter  of  course,  the  members  of  a  Sisterhood  will  al- 
ways differ  greatly  as  to  spiritual  maturity.  Therefore  no  fixed 
measure  of  advancement  in  this  direction  can  be  exacted  of  those 
about  to  enter.  Those  alone  will  find  enduring  satisfaction  in  the 
deaconess  calling,  who  labor  in  faith;  not  for  the  sake  of  wordly 
support,  to  obtain  honor  among  men  or  merit  before  God,  but  con- 
strained by  the  love  of  Christ.  It  is  not  impossible,  however,  that 
a  Sister  whose  entrance  was  prompted  by  wrong  motives,  may  in 
time  acquire  the  proper  position  toward  her  calling.  Sometimes 
the  mistaken  motive  lies  on  the  surface, — a  craving  for  activity,  a 
fanciful  view  of  the  diaconate,  dissatisfaction  with  her  position  in 
life,  make  a  change  seem  desirable, — while  in  reality,  it  was  the 
Lord,  whom  her  soul  was  seeking,  and  now  receives  peace  in  find- 
ing. The  human  heart  is  often  a  mystery  to  itself,  but  the  Lord 
knows,  how  to  bring  hidden  things  to  light.  His  ways  are 
wonderful,  and  the  means  innumerable,  by  which  He  draws  souls 
to  Himself.     Friends,  relatives,   meetings  apparently  accidental. 


—  88  — 

temporal  sorrow,  a  sermon,  a  church  festival,  a  lecture,  an  impres- 
sion from  earliest  youth,  a  report,  a  hnoi^, — the  most  insi<rnificant 
occurrences  have  proved  sufficient.  Thr()U<:;ii  such  means  tlie  Lord 
has  seized  upon  a  soid,  led  it  into  the  deaconess  Mouse,  and  then 
drawn  it  to  Himself.  But  often  the  heart  remains  untouched,  and  its 
hard,  unbelieving  worldlincss  gradually  reveals  itself.  A  deaconess 
House,  standing  upon  the  right  foundati(Hi,  and  having  the  right 
spirit,  will  have  strength  to  cast  out  such  elements  as  have  no  place 
there.  Either  a  soul  is  drawn  into  the  spiritual  communion  of  the 
service,  or  a  separation  from  the  conununity  takes  place,  the  person  in 
question  going  of  her  own  accord,  or  receiving  her  dismissal.  Ex- 
perience in  all  Christian  institutions  teaches,  ^'that  the  Lord  layeth 
up  sound  wisdom  for  the  upright."  One  who  comes,  believing  herself 
to  have  recognized  the  Lord's  Will,  and  placing  her  trust  in  the  grace 
and  power  of  Him,  whose  strength  is  made  perfect  in  weakness, 
will  assuredly  not  be  put  to  shame.  In  the  calling  itself,  those  who 
serve  are  led  from  degree  to  degree,  and  *'if  they  use  well  the  office", 
a  "good  degree"  is  promised  them.  (1.  Tim.  3,  13.)  Truthful- 
ness, and  willingness  to  be  taught,  openness  and  simplicity,  humi- 
lity and  a  taste  for  the  associated  life,  as  well  as  a  cheerful  tempera- 
ment and  love  of  work  are  necessary  qualifications  of  a  true  deaco- 
ness. In  short,  an  inner  vocation  is  needed,  if  a  deaconess  is  to 
advance  to  a  position  in  which  she  contributes  to  the  glory  of  God, 
to  the  profit  of  her  associates  in  the  work,  and  to  the  welfare  of 
those  committed  to  her  care.  If  she  possesses  a  living  faith,  she 
will  soon  become  assured  of  this  inner  vocation.  Where  such  cer- 
tainty is  wanting,  it  can  be  arrived  at  during  the  season  of  probation. 
Not  by  speculating  and  questioning  will  irresolute  natures  ac- 
complish anything,  but  by  trying.  An  aspirant  should  enter  upon 
her  probation  with  firm,  calm  and  modest  determination.  This  is 
merely  a  trial,  not  a  decision,  and  the  entering  upon  it  in  a  right 
spirit,  may  at  the  outset  be  regarded  as  a  favorable  indication ;  for 
"God  resisteth  the  proud,  and  giveth  grace  to  the  humble". 

78.  Frequently  those  who  desire  to  enter  a  deaconess  House 
as  probationers  have  to  overcome  many  difficulties  and  prejudices, 
before  they  can  carry  out  their  purpose.  Parents,  relatives,  friends 
try  to  dissuade  them.  Parents  or  guardians  refuse  their  consent. 
As  reo-ards  the  parents'  consent,  this  is  to  be  positively  in- 
sisted upon,  as  a  condition  of  admission.  The  Romish  Church  says 
in  such  cases,  that  we  must  obey  God,  rather  than  men.  But  there 
is  no  evidence,  that  God  desires  any  one,  against  their  parents' 
wishes,  therefore  in  violation  of  the  fourth  commandment,  to  enter 
the  service  of  the  Church.  "Honor  thy  father  and  thy  mother"  is 
God's  unequivocal  command.  And  if  it  is  God's  Will,  that  a  son 
or  a  daughter  should  serve  Him  in  His  Church,  He  will  see  to  it, 
that  it  can  be  done,  without  breaking  the  fourth  commandment.  If 


—  89  — 

the  desire  of  a  young  woman  to  be  a  deaconess,  is  from  God,  is 
genuine  and  sincere,  she  must  pray,  and  quietly  wait.  The  Lord 
will  grant  what  she  asks,  and  human  opposition  will  not  continue 
forever.  It  has  been  said  by  some  protestants,  that  the  mere  consent 
of  the  parents  is  not  enough — that  it  must  be  cheerfully  given ;  but 
this  is  certainly  going  too  far.  The  honor  which  we  owe  our  parents, 
merely  bids  us  not  in  defiance  of  their  wishes,  to  go  our  own  way. 
But  where  father  and  mother  perhaps  stand  aloof  from  the  faith, 
or  cannot  understand  the  matter  in  question;  where  their  horizon 
is  a  limited  one,  or  they  are  filled  with  the  prejudices  of  their  time 
and  position, — in  such  a  case,  children  are  not  debarred  from  the 
service  of  the  Lord  in  mission-  or  deaconess- work,  because  the 
parents  do  no  more  than  merely  consent.  Children  are  not  bound 
by  the  fourth  commandment,  to  demand  their  parent's  uncondi- 
tional acquiescence,  or  to  sit  in  judgment  upon  the  spirit  in  which 
their  permission  is  granted;  but  only  to  have  a  care  that  no  dis- 
respect to  their  parents  adheres  to  their  entering  the  service  of  the 
Lord. 

The  task  of  removing  the  prejudices,  which  stand  in  the  way 
of  a  young  girl's  entrance  into  the  deaconess  House,  would  be- 
long above  all  to  the  pastors,  if  these  were  not  often  themselves 
influenced  by  the  same  prejudices.  We  have  here  to  deal  with  a 
state  of  affairs,  which  stands  in  close  connection  with  the  conditions 
in  our  Church.  The  great  superficiality  and  unbounded  subjectivity 
of  many  so-called  believers,  the  wide-spread  unbelief,  the  lack  of 
decided  doctrinal  churchliness,  and  thorough  churchly  training,  the 
often  purely  worldly  tendency  of  mind,  even  where  the  Church 
and  her  affairs  are  concerned, — all  these  unite  to  prevent  the  dia- 
conate  from  being  fully  understood  in  wider  circles.  Lectures  and 
writings  upon  the  subject  do  not  go  far.  The  best  means  of  dissi- 
pating prejudices  is  a  practical  acquaintance  with  the  diaconate,  an 
experience  of  its  attendant  blessings,  and  the  contemplation  of  the 
peaceful  joy  and  humble  gratitude,  which  animate  the  service  of  the 
Sisters.  But  at  least,  of  pastors  and  educated  Christians  a  thorough 
familiarity  with  the  matter,  even  without  practical  observation, 
might  be  expected,  and  a  willingness  to  oppose  with  decision  the 
current  objections.  The  Church  needs  an  organized  service  of  mercy, 
which,  in  so  far  as  it  is  exercised  by  women,  demands  an  unmarried 
life.  This  does  not  contradict  the  Scriptural  idea  of  marriage,  but 
merely  opposes  that  over-estimation  of  marriage,  which  is  very  gen- 
eral in  our  day,  and  is  justified  neither  by  the  Word  of  God,  nor  by 
experience.  Whenever  it  has  asserted  itself  with  especial  prominence, 
it  has  been  an  indication,  that  the  religious  life  was  inactive,  and  the 
spiritual  interests  at  a  low  ebb.  We  shall  return  to  this  subject 
later.  If  the  female  diaconate  is  a  calling  desired  by  the  Lord^ 
and  needed  by  the  Church,  it  is  always  a  serious  mistake,  when 


—  90  — 

parents  prevent  tluir  daughters  from  obeying  the  inelination  which 
draws  them  to  this  service.  That  it  is  too  arduous,  that  it  necessitates 
great  physical  strength,  that  coarse  work,  and  even  an  excess  ofit,  is 
demanded,  that  it  is  injurious  to  the  health,  that  it  shortens  life,  or 
draws  lines  too  narrow  for  evangelical  liberty, — all  these  are  preju- 
dices which  we  cannot  dispel,  wiiile  peo])le  insist  upon  retaining 
them,  but  which  a  careful  and  candid  examination  will  easily  over- 
come. It  would  lead  us  too  far,  were  we  to  eutcr  more  fully  into  this 
question.  The  Sisters  renounce  a  life  of  unrestraint  and  caprice, 
— that  is  certain.  For  the  rest,  they  are  free,  in  spite  of  their  re- 
straint, and  find  abundant  opportunities  to  develop  their  talents  and 
their  individnalitv,  which  would  not  be  possible  Avithout  freedom, 
with  mechanical  training  and  legal  constraint.  Most  matried  women, 
if  they  conscientiously  fulfill  the  duties  of  their  calling,  are  far  more 
bound  than  a  deaconess.  The  assertion,  that  deaconesses  become 
estranged  from  their  families,  is  also  incorrect.  So  much  is  true — 
the  associated  life  and  the  calling  of  the  Sisters  is  not  so  openly 
displayed  to  fathers  and  brothers,  mothers  and  aunts,  as  is  the  every- 
day life  of  the  family.  For  the  rest,  the  deaconess  can  be  to 
her  family  all  that  it  is  possible  to  be,  in  connection  with  a  life- 
calling,  by  which  she  no  longer  belongs  to  her  parents'  house,  but 
to  the  household  of  the  Lord.  Believing  parents  will  learn  that 
spiritual  sacrifices,  like  that  of  Hannah,  when  she  returned  to  the 
Lord's  service  the  child  she  had  asked  of  Him,  enrich,  instead  of 
impoverishing  a  household.  It  should  be  to  us  a  source  of  deep 
humiliation,  that  so  few  families  among  us,  even  the  religiously 
inclined,  seem  to  have  any  conception  of  the  glory  of  the  New 
Testament  "sacrifice  of  praise",  offered  in  gratitude  for  mercies 
received.  AYe  need  not  say,  that  where  God  has  given  a  daughter  a 
life-calling  elsewhere,  she  has  no  right  to  exchange  it  for  one  of  her 
own  chosing,  even  though  it  be' that  of  a  deaconess.  We  would  not 
be  standing  upon  Gospel-foundation,  if  Ave  advocated  self-chosen 
paths,  and  self-chosen  "spirituality".  Yet  parents,  who  would  at 
anytime  consent  to  the  niarrige  of  their  daughter,  have  scarcely  the 
right,  as  Christians,  permanently  to  oppose  her  purpose  of  devoting 
herself  to  the  service  of  the  Lord  in  His  Church. 

79.  If  the  path  of  the  young  girl  or  widow  has  been  smoothed 
for  her  entrance  into  the  deaconess  House,  she  must  make  ap- 
plication to  its  immediate  superiors.  This  must  be  accompanied 
by  a  certificate  of  baptism,  a  physician's  certificate,  the  Avritten  con- 
sent of  her  parents  and  guardians,  a  short  sketch  of  her  life,  pre- 
pared by  herself,  and  a  sealed  testimonial  from  her  pastor.  As  to 
further  preparations  to  be  made,  she  will  have  to  inform  herself. 
During  the  actual  year  of  probation,  she  provides  her  own  cloth- 
ing, etc.,  but  receives  her  board,  together  Avith  her  aprons  and  caps. 
Besides  the  necessary  underclothing;,   footwear,   and   suitable  dark 


—  91  — 

dresses,  she  must  bring  with  her  a  Bible.  In  almost  all  Mother- 
houses  there  is  a  dearth  of  Sisters,  and  an  earnest  hel})er  is  always 
welcome.  For  less  robust  persons,  it  is  advisable,  to  enter  in  the 
Spring,  rather  than  in  the  Autumn. 

80.  The  deaconess  House,  in  its  various  branches  and  in  its 
hospital,  offers  ample  opportunity  for  the  training  of  the  pro- 
bationer. This  training  is  obtained  by  practical  exercise  in 
sick  -  nursing,  together  with  theoretical  instruction  of  various 
kinds. 

The  trained  superintending  Sisters  introduce  the  probationers 
to  their  work,  and  while  working  with  them,  giVe  them  the  neces- 
sary directions.  As  a  rule,  the  Motherhouses  require  all  probationers 
to  go  through  a  course  in  nursing.  Even  if  a  Sister  is  afterwards 
employed  exclusively  in  teaching,  or  in  the  household,  her  training 
as  a  nurse  will  always  be  valuable  to  her.  Times  and  circumstances 
will  not  be  wanting,  when  she  will  be  called  upon  to  exercise  her 
skill.  Through  the  training  in  the  care  of  the  sick,  the  education  of 
all  the  deaconesses  receives  a  uniform  character,  which  brings  the 
Sisters  Avho  do  not  nurse,  into  full  sympathy  with  the  far  greater 
number  of  nursing  Sisters.  More  than  any  other,  this  branch  of 
the  work  proves  a  test  of  the  true  deaconess  spirit.  Not  all  dea- 
conesses can  have  eminent  talents  for  nursing.  Various  gifts 
and  abilities  are  useful  and  necessary  for  other  purposes  as 
well.  But  no  deaconess  will  pass  through  her  year's  probation  in 
the  hospital  without  signal  benefit.  If  possible,  a  Sister  should  have 
become  familiar  with  every  form  of  nursing,  and  should  thoroughly 
understand  those  duties  which  are  taken  tor  granted  in  tlie  care  ot 
the  sick,  such  as  keeping  the  sick-room  in  order,  etc.  Many  good 
workers  have  to  re-learn  familiar  duties,  because  the  care  of  the 
sick  demands  greater  exactness  and  attention,  than  are  called  for 
in  ordinary  cases.  It  is  easier  than  might  be  supposed,  to 
become  accustomed  to  witness  serious  operations  and  great  suf- 
fering. The  ability  to  afford  relief  in  distress  is  a  powerful  aid  in 
overcoming  the  stumbling-blocks,  which  to  a  nervous,  sensitive 
nature  seem  insurmountable.  There  is  much  to  learn  in  the  service 
among  the  sick,  and  all  the  forces  of  body  and  mind  are  enlisted  in 
the  work.     Hereto  is  added  the  instruction. 

The  probationers  are  instructed  in  the  catechism  of  the  Church, 
and  in  biblical  knowledge.  The  former,  especially,  is  indis- 
pensable. The  relation  of  these  studies  to  the  deaconess  call- 
ing will  make  old  things  appear  new ;  and  nothing  else  so 
effectually  leads  the  probationers  into  the  spirit  of  the  house 
and  religious  community,  of  which  they  desire  to  become  mem- 
bers. Of  equal  importance  with  the  study  of  the  catechism, 
is  that  of  the  female  diaconate  as  to  its  Scriptural  foundation 
and  history,  and  its  present  inward  and  outward  form.    The  pastor 


—  92  — 

of  the  insatution  gives  this  instruction.  Probationers  who  are  de- 
ficient in  the  eleinentarv  brandies,  must  be  a(lvan('ed  in  these. 
Singing  is  especially  cultivated.  It  is  well,  if" a  fixed  course  can  be 
arranged  for  the  probationers,  so  that  for  instance,  tiiey  are  practi- 
cally employed  during  the  forenoon,  and  study  in  the  afternoon ; 
but  usually  the  numbers  are  too  small,  both  of  workers  and 
teachers,  to  admit  of  such  a  complete  and  systematic  arrangement. 
There  can  be  a  superabundance  of  theoretical  study.  Deaconesses, 
if  they  are  faitliful,  learn  continually  and  in  every  direction, 
through  their  religious  life  and  their  calling, — and  this  is  the  best 
school.  The  medical  instruction  given  the  probationers  by  the 
superintending  physician  dare  not  encourage  any  half-knowledge 
or  self-conceit.  The  requirements  of  sick-nursing  are  alone  to  be 
considered,  and  this  object  is  most  effectually  attained,  if  the  Sisters 
not  only  have  become  thorough  and  capable  in  the  duties  of  their 
calling,  but  have  learned  to  maintain  a  judicious  reserve  in  all 
things  not  pertaining  to  their  office. 

81.  It  is  easily  understood,  that  the  varied  activity,  the  mul- 
tiplicity of  new  impressions,  the  often  wholly  unaccustomed  mode 
of  life,  make  great  demands  upon  a  probationer.  To  many  there 
come  seasons  of  disappointment.  They  expected  a  vigorous  advance- 
ment of  their  religious  life,  and  now,  tired  and  sleepy  in  body  and 
mind,  in  spite  of  divine  services  and  spiritual  activity,  they  ex- 
perience a  greater  inner  dryness  than  ever  before.  Perhaps  they 
mistook  a  meditative  sentimentality  for  genuine  faith,  and  must 
now  learn  that  their  faith  was  a  broken  reed,  upon  which  they  can- 
not lean.  Or  their  imagination  pictured  the  life  of  the  religious 
community  as  a  lovely  idyl, — a  paradise,  as  it  were,  without  the 
serpent.  Now  they  must  learn,  that  where  poor  sinners  dwell  closely 
together  in  the  light  of  God's  Word,  the  miseries  of  sin  become  very 
evident.  The  most  promising  spiritual  growth  is  often  hidden  under 
these  and  similar  experiences,  but  meanwhile  the  probationer  is 
unaware  of  it.  Frequent  disappointments  occur  also  in  the  pursuit 
of  the  work.  Perhaps  she  has  overrated  her  strength  ;  others 
progress  more  rapidly ;  and  if  the  motives  which  prompted  her 
entrance,  were  unworthy  ones,  this  knowledge  will  add  to  her 
sorrow  and  pain.  But  very  often  the  probationers  proceed  on  their 
way  Avithout  many  troubles,  and  the  deaconess  life  is  entirely  con- 
genial to  them.  From  the  greater  ease  or  difficulty  of  the  beginn- 
ing we  can  draw  no  conclusions  as  to  the  future.  A  hard  beginn- 
ing often  indicates  the  earnestness  of  a  strong  character,  to  whom 
the  Lord  in  the  end  awards  a  most  happy  result.  A  probationer 
must  above  all  things  be  entirely  frank  toward  those  who  are  guid- 
ing her  education.  If  we  discover  that  our  clothing  is  on  fire  we 
do  not  hide  it,  but  uncover  it,  that  it  may  be  quenched.  It  does  no 
harm,  if  a  Sister  makes  mistakes.   A  bishop  once  wrote  to  a  young 


—  93  — 

pastor,  that  he  hoped  he  would  make  many  blunders.  His  opinion 
was  that  honest  and  conscientious  natures,  by  their  very  errors,  would 
learn  to  avoid  error.  Insincere  natures  hide  their  faults,  and  these 
of  course  retrograde,  instead  of  advancing.  A  sin,  which  cannot, 
under  any  circumstances  be  tolerated  in  a  deaconess  community,  is 
falsehood  in  any  form.  A  Sister  who  lacks  truthfulness  will  sooner 
or  later  be  forced  to  relinquish  her  calling, 

82.  In  addition  to  the  pastor  and  Sister  Superior  of  the 
House,  and  those  deaconesses  who  have  the  superintendency  of  the 
outside  stations,  an  older  deaconess  is  usually  appointed  for  the 
special  supervision  and  training  of  the  probationers.  She  is  call- 
ing the  training  Sister.  She  is  chosen  by  the  Sister  Superior,  and 
must  act  entirely  in  her  spirit  and  according  to  her  directions. 

When  the  time  arrives  for  the  probationer  to  be  received 
into  the  novitiate,  all  the  novices  and  deaconesses  employed 
in  the  House,  are  entitled  to  a  voice  in  the  matter,  the  respon- 
sibility thus  being  shared  by  all.  The  Sisterhood  must  answer 
for  its  members,  all  fur  each,  and  each  for  all.  Therefore  the 
sense  of  unity  and  of  common  responsibility  must  be  carefully 
cultivated. 

With  the  introduction  of  the  probationer  into  the  novitiate  a 
little  festivity  is  connected.  Too  much  must  not  be  made  of  it,  for 
the  novitiate  is  still  a  period  of  proba^tion.  Especially  must  the 
ceremony  not  partake  of  a  public  character,  or  in  any  way  resemble 
a  consecration. 

83.  The  novice  is  acquainted  in  general  with  the  duties  and 
obligations  of  the  deaconess  calling,  and  her  promotion  is  considered 
a  testimony  to  her  inner  fitness,  as  well  as  to  her  possession  of  the 
needed  outward  skill.  This  expectation  must  be  verified  on  her 
part  by  faithful  work  and  good  behavior,  within  the  Sisterhood, 
and  in  the  diflFerent  fields  of  labor,  to  which  the  Motherhouse  may 
send  her.  As  a  rule,  she  no  longer  receives  special  instruction. 
She  herself  must  now  continue  her  education,  by  her  life  in  the 
calling,  and  by  faithful  devotion  to  it.  A  deaconess  must  be  able 
to  stand  upon  her  ow^n  feet.  It  is  only  by  a  comparatively  indepen- 
dent participation  in  the  duties  ol  the  House,  that  the  capabilities  of 
a  Sister  are  fully  awakened,  and  her  probation  is  brought  to  a  certain 
conclusion,  such  as  is  necessary  for  her  consecration.  The  duration 
of  the  novitiate  varies  greatly.  A  longer  time  is  needed  to  gain  a 
thorough  acquaintance  with  those  of  a  reserved  nature ;  and  very 
young  novices  must  not  be  surprised  if  the  end  of  their  probation 
is  not  hastened.  Many  circumstances  are  to  be  considered.  The 
greater  the  experience  gained  by  the  Motherhouses,  the  rnore  im- 
portant will  be  to  all  without  exception  the  principle  "lay  hands 
suddenly  on  no  man". 


—  94    - 

84.  We  have  now  reached  that  period  in  the  life  of  the  dea- 
coness, which  is  only  second  in  ini])ortan('e  to  her  entrance  into  the 
JNIotherliouse — her  co)ii^ccr(tflun.  Tiiis  in  a  certain  sense  corresi)onds 
to  tiie  ceremony  of  ordination  to  the  pastoral  office.  According  to 
Lutheran,  that  is,  Scriptural  jjrinciples,  we  dare  not  over-estimate 
the  latter, — the  comparison  is  therefore  not  presumptuous.  The 
consecration  of  a  deaconess,  as  well  as  the  ordination  of  a  pastor, 
is  the  outward  confirmation  of  an  inward  call.  The  Sister  has 
had  the  opportunity  for  years,  to  prove  herself  as  to  her  inner  vo- 
cation for  the  deaconess  life;  and  this  inner  vocation  muiit  be  her 
first  consideration.  To  this  is  added  the  outward  call.  As  she 
has  proved  herself,  so  the  Motherhouse  has  proved  her.  The  pastor 
and  director  of  the  Motherhouse  now  declares  to  her,  that  he  is  ready 
to  consecrate  her  to  the  deaconess  calling,  and  that  she,  on  her  part, 
must  declare  her  readiness  to  be  consecrated.  If  both  sides  have 
the  full  assurance,  in  the  sight  of  God,  that  all  is  well  prepared 
and  considered,  both  inwardly  and  outwardly,  the  consecration  may 
take  place,  with  the  certainty  that  the  Lord  Himself  will  pronounce 
His  Yea  and  Amen.  This  Yea  and  Amen  finds  itsexpression  in  the 
consecration  at  His  altar.  There  the  inward  and  outward  vocation 
of  the  deaconess  meet.  The  Sister  voirs,  before  the  altar  of  the 
Lord,  that  she  will,  as  a  deaconess,  serve  Him,  her  Saviour,  in  His 
Church  and  according  to  His  Will.  With  the  laying  on  of  hands 
and  prayer,  she  receives  the  -blessing,  in  the  Name  of  the  Lord. 
Throughout  the  transaction,  she  is  dealing  with  the  Lord.  He  must 
be  sensibly  present  to  her.  Her  vow  is  the  answer  to  His  call, 
of  which  she  has  become  inwardly  sure, — and  His  blessing  is  His 
answer.  The  inward  and  outward  vocation  are  thus  in  full  har- 
mony, as  far  as  this  is  possible  with  poor  sinners.  The  inwardly  ex- 
perienced call  becomes  a  spoken  vow  and  confession  ;  the  audible 
confirmation  and  blessing,  an  inward  seal.  Without  any  admix- 
ture of  unscriptural  ideas  it  may  be  said,  that  in  this  ceremony  an 
actual  gift  is  imparted  to  the  one  consecrated.  For  the  certified 
vocation  assures  the  heart  of  the  presence  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and 
of  His  aid  in  all  the  duties  of  the  calling.  If  any  one  knocks,  it 
shall  be  opened  unto  him;  if  any  one  asks,  it  shall  be  given  him. 
The  "Yea"  of  the  Lord  is  an  assurance,  that  the  Sister,  according 
to  the  measure  of  her  receptivity,  will  not  lack  the  grace  and  gifts 
needed  in  her  calling.  In  so  far  we  may  say  that  a  communication 
of  the  Holy  Spirit  is  connected  Avith  the  laying  on  of  hands  and 
prayer  at  the  consecration. 

85.  By  her  consecration  the  novice  becomes  a  deaconess,  and 
is  definitively  received  into  the  Sisterhood  of  the  Motherhouse. 
The  Motherhouse  henceforth  provides  for  all  her  needs,  even  though 
she  become  incapacitated  for  work.  Consecration  thus,  by  the  bind- 
ing of  each  individual  Sister  in  her  own  conscience,  forms  the  tie 


—  95  — 

which  binds  the  community  of  Sisters  among  themselves.^  It  is  ne- 
cessary to  give  more  detailed  attention  to  this  matter,  so  important 
for  the  entire  deaconess  cause ;  and  here  the  vote  of  the  deaconess 
is  first  to  be  considered. 

We  cannot  recognize  the  Romish  doctrine  of  the  so-called 
"evangelical  counsels"  of  poverty,  chastity  and  obedience,  and  of 
the  justifiableness  of  a  vow  which  binds  the  person  to  them  for 
life."  We  firmly  maintain,  that  the  one  vow  of  a  Christian  is  the 
baptismal  vow,  and  that  no  special  vow  is  justified,  which  is  not 
in  some  way  included  in  the  vow  of  baptism.  Whatever  we,  as 
protestant  Christians,  promise  with  regard  to  any  special  office  or 
calling,  is  nothing  further  than  the  application  of  the  baptismal  vow 
to  the  individual  case.  Yet  this  does  not  preclude,  that  the  indi- 
vidual case  be  fully  secured  in  its  rights  by  a  special  vow,  de- 
manded and  taken  Vith  reference  to  it.  Such  a  special  vow 
continues  in  force,  while  we,  by  the  Lord's  Will,  continue  in  the 
office  or  calling  which  demanded  it.  Our  baptismal  vow  onl} 
is  binding  for  life.  It  does  not  become  Christians,  to  bind  them- 
selves otherwise.  No  Christian  has  arbitrary  power  over  his  own 
life,  but  is  forevermore  bound  to  the  Will  of  God. 

Certain  vows  bind  us,  as  before  God,  to  the  civil  and  churchly 
administration.  Inasmuch  as  the  deaconess  work  rests  wholly  upon 
voluntary  action,  these  administrations  have  nothing  to  do  with  the 
consecration  of  deaconesses.  The  deaconesses  remain  free  in  their 
calling,  they  voluntarily  promise  themselves  to  the  Lord's  service. 
No  outward  force  compels  them.  Yet  they  do  not  possess  their 
freedom,  to  use  it  "for  an  occasion  to  the  flesh".  They  are  bound 
to  the  Lord,  inwardly  and  spiritually,  to  serve  Him,  as  long  as 
He  desires,  as  deaconesses.  He  only  can  absolve  them.  To  earthly- 
minded  persons  this  means  little ;  to  the  spiritually-minded,  it  means 
everything. 

86.  What  is  the  purport  of  the  special  vow,  which  the  deaco- 
ness takes  at  her  consecration  ?  We  emphasize,  in  the  first  place, 
that  it  includes  the  vow  to  remain  unmarried,  because  this  is  a  con- 
dition of  the  deaconess  life.  Marriage  is  a  right,  and  a  gift  of  God. 
All  prohibitions  of  marriage  are  devil's  doctrine,  as  the  apostle 
expressly  states.  (1.  Tim.  4,  1 — 3.)  On  the  other  hand,  single 
life  may  also  be  a  gift  and  a  right,  which  can  be  denied  to  no  one. 
Any-one  may  voluntarily  renounce  marriage.  It  is  an  indication 
of  the  pagan  under-current  in  human  life,  when  the  notion  again 
and  again  asserts  itself,  that  life  without  marriage  is  a  failure. 
God  said,  it  is  not  well  for  man  to  be  alone.  And  He  gave  him 
woman  as  a  helpmeet.  The  sexes  supplement  each  other.  This  is 
surely,  pre-eminently  but  not  exclusively,  true  of  marriage.  It  is  a 
fact,  that  St.  Paul  (1.  Cor.  7)  commends  single  life.  He  takes  for 
granted,  that  pars jns  have  the  gift  of  living  unmarried  ;  otherwise 


—  m  — 

marriage  were  better.  But  where  the  gift  exists  in  persons,  it  leaves 
them  greater  freedom  and  independence  to  surrender  themselves  to 
the  Lord,  and  to  serve  the  kingdom  of  Heaven,  With  this  com- 
mendation of  single  life,  the  apostle  does  not  desire  to  "put  a  rope 
on  any  man's  neck".  Single  life  is  no  holier,  no  more  pleasing  to 
God,  than  marriage.  It  permits  greater  liberty  of  movement,  and 
insures  freedom  from  the  anxiety  which  "careth  for  the  things  of 
this  world".  But  the  gifts  ditfer.  Those  wiio  have  not  the  gift 
of  living  unmarried,  will,  humanly  thinking,  be  best  promoted  in 
their  spiritual  life  by  a  christian  marriage  Neither  is  holier  than 
the  other,  but  each  is  a  diiferent  gift.  Upon  this  territory  mys- 
teries abound.  To  many  persons  the  possibility  of  marriage  is 
practically  denied.  Men  are  often  not  able  to  marry  until  late  in 
life;  many  women  not  at  all.  And  if  we  were  at  greater  pains  to 
learn  the  will  of  God,  and  to  secure  our  everlasting  salvation,  the 
opportunities  of  forming  a  suitable  marriage  would  be  even  rarer. 
The  union  of  a  believing  woman  with  an  unbelieving  man  no  doubt 
often  becomes  the  ruin  of  her  religious  faith.  Mixed  marriages, 
and  all  marriages  which  preclude  a  true,  spiritual  communion  bet- 
ween man  and  wife,  are  undesirable.  Marriage  brings  its  own 
cross  to  all  who  enter  upon  it;  but  it  may  also  become  one  of  the 
most  fearful  spiritual  temptations.  Where  God  has  not  granted  to 
a  christian  person  the  gift  of  living  unmarried,  and  has  likewise 
withheld  the  opportunity  of  marriage,  He  has  Himself  thereby  set 
a  task  to  that  person.  A  christian  will  sooner  or  later  discover,  it 
not  here  below,  then  hereafter,  that  in  this  also  the  Lord  had  a 
gracious  purpose  in  His  behalf.  While  in  this  relation  sin  has  a 
fearful  power,  destructive  to  body  and  soul,  yet  the  golden  wonder- 
threads  of  grace  are  very  visibly  interwoven  with  the  rest.  If  a 
young  woman,  either  because  she  has  the  gift,  or  because  God's 
guidance  has  led  her,  serves  Him  in  the  single  state,  her  ric/ht  to  do 
so  dare  not  in  any  case  be  disputed.  The  above  suggestions  will 
fully  prove  this  assertion. 

87.  A  right  includes  a  duty.  All  cannot  perceive  the  beauty 
and  honor  of  unmarried  life  according  to  God's  Will,  "save  they 
to  whom  it  is  given".  (Matth.  19,  11.)  A  deaconess  should  seek 
to  grasp  it,  and  pray  without  ceasing,  until  it  is  given  her. 
Purity  of  heart  may  be  a  gift  of  nature,  or  a  gift  of  grace,  ob- 
tained by  prayer.  Even  though  it  be  the  former,  it  must  become 
the  latter.  Where  it  exists,  it  must  be  guarded  Avith  prayer  and 
faithful  vigilance.  Even  where  it  is  a  gift  of  nature,  it  may  be 
quickly  lost.  It  is  greatly  endangered  by  spiritual  pride.  The 
fall  from  the  heights  of  spiritual  self-exaltation,  mostly  leads  to  the 
depths  of  fleshly  pollution.  For  the  rest,  the  service  of  the  deaco- 
ness provides  effective  weapons  for  the  war,  which  purity  has  to 
wage  in  this  world  of  impurity.     Among  these  weapons  we  w^ould 


—  97  — 

reckon  especially  tlie  truth  and  clearness  regarding  human  rela- 
tions, which  are  given  by  God's  Word,  and  confirmed  by  experience ; 
and  furthermore,  the  true,  spiritual  fast  of  constant  work,  stimulat- 
ing and  absorbing  all  her  faculties.  If  with  it  all,  as  the  chief  re- 
quisite, the  deaconess  truly  stands  luider  the  influence  of  the  Gospel 
of  peace,  carefully  avoiding  all  fanciful  affectation  and  self-delusion, 
she  will  discover  that  the  Lord  causes  a  bright  light  to  shiue  upon  the 
humble  path  of  maidenly  devotion  to  His  service.  The  more  dis- 
passionate and  calm  the  soul  whicli  beholds  this  light,  the  more 
beautifully,  as  an  unquenchable  star,  will  it  rise  within  her. 

88.  What  then,  with  the  Scriptural  view  of  unmarried  life,  is 
to  be  thought  of  a  deaconess,  who  relinquishes  her  calling  for  the 
purpose  of  marrying  ?  As  a  matter  of  course,  she  is  not  bound 
outwardly  by  any  tie.  Nor  can  the  possibility  be  denied,  that  in 
leaving  her  calling  and  entering  upon  married  life,  she  may  be  obey- 
ing God's  will.  It  would  be  a  perversion  of  the  Gospel,  if  other 
views  became  prevalent  in  the  Motherhouses.  If  any  attempt  were 
made,  by  human  ordinances  to  restrict  the  evangelical  liberty  of  the 
Sisters,  which  the  Son  of  God  has  purchased  for  them  with  His 
blood,  they  would  do  better,  to  shake  the  dust  from  their  feet.  But 
we  dare  not,  unadvisedly,  after  the  manner  of  those  who  have  no 
understanding  of  the  questions  concerned,  speak  of  the  marriage  of 
deaconesses,  as  though  there  existed  no  calling  to  which  they  were 
bound  in  the  Lord.  If  it  was  His  will,  that  a  young  woman  should 
become  a  deaconess;  if,  after  careful  trial  and  examination,  the 
inward  and  outward  vocation,  as  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord,  re- 
ceived His  confirmation  by  her  consecration,  it  is  not  likely,  that 
He  will  soon  afterwards  desire  something  different  for  her.  It 
is  more  probable,  that  in  devoting  herself  to  the  calling,  the 
Sister  now  desirous  of  leaving  did  not  go  carefully  to  work,  and 
that  she  did  not  take  her  vow  before  the  Lord's  altar  as  seriously 
as  slie  should  have  done.  It  is  not  for  us  to  judge.  But 
this  we  may  say,  that  a  Sister  should  examine  herself,  and  faith- 
fully endeavor  to  learn  the  will  of  God.  If  she  fails  to  do  so, 
it  will  be  her  own  fault,  if  there  rests  upon  her  forsaking  her 
calling  and  upon  her  marriage,  the  stain  of  fickleness  or  unfaith- 
fulness. If  she  is  acting  conscientiously,  the  deaconess  will  in  such 
a  case,  before  she  makes  a  decision,  seek  the  advice  of  the  Superiors 
of  the  House,  and  in  accordance  with  the  fourth  commandment, 
take  heed,  lest  she  take  counsel  with  flesh  and  blood,  rather  than 
with  the  Lord.  Other  circumstances  will  also  suggest  themselves 
for  examination.  After  all  things  have  been  honestly  and  carefully 
considered,  and  the  Sister  decides  upon  going,  no  obstacle  will  be 
put  in  her  way,  even  though  the  superiors  may  not  fully  approve  her 
decision.  Her  going  will  be  without  reproach,  and  she  will  be  able 
to  continue  in   friendly  intercourse  with   the   Motherhouse.       The 


—  i)«  — 

human  heart  often  follows  strange  paths.  When  we  have  really 
sought  to  know  and  to  do  the  will  of  (Jod,  His  blessiug  rests  upon 
all  our  efforts,  whether  they  are  easy  or  difficult.  The  experience 
of  the  Motherhouses  shows  that  the  chapter  of  deaconess-marriages, 
besides  a  few  bright  pages,  contains  many  dark  ones.  It  is  not  a 
false  doctrine  of  marriage  and  single  life,  but  only  the  carefully 
developed  doctrine  of  the  christian  calling;  it  is  not  J^omish,  but 
truly  evangelical,  if  deaconesses  do  not  liglitly  abandon  a  calling, 
to  which  in  voluntary  self-surrender,  they  permitted  themselves  to 
be  consecrated  before  God's  altar.  They  are  free,  and  are  to  re- 
main so.  It  is  their  treasure  and  their  glory,  that  they  may 
so  continue.  But  they  are  not  as  such  who  use  their  liberty  as 
a  "cloak  for  maliciousness",  or  who,  because  they  serve  of  their 
own  free  will  in  the  House  of  God,  may  therefore  do  as  they 
please. 

In  many  Motherhouses,  the  Sisters  at  their  admission,  give  the 
solemn  promise,  not  to  leave,  before  communicating  their  intention 
to  the  Superiors  of  the  House.  This  is  only  as  it  should  be,  for  the 
Motherhouse  has  to  answer  for  its  Sisters,  and  it  has  the  right  to 
demand  that  they  do  as  much  for  the  Motherhouse.  All  this 
receives  in  the  consecration  its  confirmation  as  from  God.  There 
is  in  it  no  idea  of  constraint,  or  enslavement  of  consciences. 

89.  The  obligation  to  remain  unmarried  is  not  expressly  men- 
tioned in  the  vow  of  a  deaconess,  being  a  condition  of  the  calling 
itself.  She  promises  to  serve  the  Lord  as  deaconess,  so  Ipngas  He 
desires  it ;  and  she  remains  unmarried,  while  she  is  a  deaconess. 
That  she  binds  herself  to  the  service,  according  to  the  rules  of  her 
Motherhouse,  and  by  this  to  the  Motherhouse  itself,  must  be  ex- 
pressed and  emphasized  ;  likewise  that  she  binds  herself,  as  a  deaco- 
ness, to  serve  in  accordance  with  the  rules  of  the  Church.  If  the 
Motherhouse  is  a  Lutheran  one,  its  rules  will  be  those  of  the  Lu- 
theran Church.  If  it  belongs  to  another  confession,  the  obligation 
is  to  that  one.  The  form  in  which  this  obligation  to  the  confession 
and  churchly  rules  is  expressed,  differs  greatly  in  different  Houses, 
and  in  some  may  be  omitted  almost  entirely.  In  this  case  the  obli- 
gation to  the  Motherhouse,  and  therefore  to  its  churchly  character, 
will  be  brought  into  so  much  greater  relief.  We  consider  it  the 
only  suitable  proceeding  in  the  consecration,  to  make  separate  men- 
tion of  the  Motherhouse  and  of  the  Church. 

Inasmuch  as  the  deaconesses  serve  according  to  the  rules  ot 
their  Motherhouse,  their  entire  institutional  life  is  fitted  into  the 
frame-work  of  obedience.  This  affords  them  great  strength  and 
comfort.  Of  course,  no  obedience  is  here  meant,  which  would  bind 
them  to  men  rather  than  to  God.  It  is  scarcely  likely  that  any- 
thing will  be  required  of  deaconesses,  that  is  contrary  to  God's 
Word,     If  it  were,    they  must  obey  God,   rather  than  men.     But 


—  99  — 

women  will  not  be  qualified  for  wholesome  service  within  the 
Church,  unless  they  walk  in  well-defined  and  decided  paths  of  or- 
der and  obedience. 

The  fact  that  the  deaconesses  are  bound  to  the  rules  of  the 
Church,  affords  them  support  and  protection  against  the  sub- 
jectivity and  arbitrariness  which  often  prevail  in  churchly  mat- 
ters. The  Sisters  are  removed  from  all  partisanship  in  the  Church, 
if  they  are  simply  and  firmly  bound  to  the  churchly  confession.  All 
their  books  and  prayers,  all  that,  for  instance,  in  their  attendance 
upon  the  sick,  they  may  read  to  these,  must  of  course  be  ip  harmony 
with  it.  Only  such  books  are  to  be  used  by  the  Sisters,  as-are,  so  to 
speak,  of  a  churchly-classical  character.  Extemporaneous  prayer 
cannot  be  forbidden  the  deaconesses  in  their  ministrations  in  private 
houses,  but  it  must  be  limited  to  exceptional  cases,  where  it  is  ur- 
gently desired.  For  the  rest,  a  deaconess  must  know  what  agrees, 
or  does  not  agree  with  the  confession  of  her  Church,  in  worship, 
preaching  and  doctrine,  at  confession,  baptism  and  the  Holy  Com- 
munion. With  sects  and  conventicles  she  has  nothing  to  do.  Where 
the  proper  rules  are  wanting,  or  are  not  observed,  the  deaconess 
must  keep  them  in  her  mind  and  heart,  and  work  in  their  spirit. 
In  so  far  as  it  does  not  conflict  with  these  rules,  she  must,  where- 
ever  she  is  placed,  simply  yield  to  existing  conditions.  In  many 
cases  it  is  not  churchly  authorities,  but  private  persons,  municipa- 
lities or  societies,  who  place  the  Sisters.  The  Sisters  must  treat 
these  managers  with  respect  and  obedience.  To  this  their  instructions 
from  the  Motherhouse  bind  them.  These  instructions  regulate 
the  service  of  the  Sisters,  and  guard  its  character  as  a  churchly  dia- 
conate.  The  Motherhouse  must  see  to  it,  that  the  instructions  fur- 
nished by  it  fully  define  the  duties  of  the  deaconess  toward  itself, 
the  Church,  the  individual  parish  and  the  local  managers,  and  that 
they  are  unreservedly  obeyed. 

It  may,  under  certain  circumstances,  appear  desirable,  that  a 
deaconess  be  permitted  to  leave  one  Motherhouse,  and  enter  an- 
other. The  Motherhouses  have  an  agreement  among  themselves,  by 
which  the  transfer  of  a  Sister  from  one  to  the  other  can  only 
take  place,  on  condition  that  the  INIotherhouse  she  leaves,  does  not 
object.  The  proper  transfer  demands,  that  the  House  to  which 
she  belongs  by  her  consecration,  does  not  dispense  her  from  her  ob- 
ligation, but  transfers  it  to  the  other  House.  A  re-consecration  in 
such  a  case  would  be  absurd.  A  deaconess  continues  to  be  faithful 
to  the  promise  made  at  God's  Altar,  even  though  the  one  Mother- 
house  hands  over  to  another  its  right  to  her  service.  Re-consecration 
of  a  deaconess  who  has  wilfully  broken  faith  cannot  conscientiously 
be  permitted.  In  no  case  can  she  be  received  into  another  Mother- 
house,  until  she  has  obtained  forgiveness  for  her  breach  of  faith, 
and  is  again   at  peace   with   the  Motherhouse    she  had    forsaken. 


—  KiO  — 

Neither  in  another  Motherhouse  nor  in  hor  own,  in  case  her  service 
there  is  resumed  with  tlie  i)roinise(I  taithfuhiess,  can  there  be  any 
(juestion  of  a  re-consecration.  Of  course,  no  Motherhouse  can  sanc- 
tion the  transfer  of  one  of  its  deaconesses  to  another  House,  if  it 
necessitates  a  change  of  confession. 

90.  In  most  Motherhouses  the  day  of  consecration  is  preceded 
by  a  season  ot  preparation.  During  this  time  the  vSisters  to  be  con- 
secrated are  instructed  by  their  pastor  as  to  the  significance  of  the 
consecration,  and  are  prepared  for  it.  The  ])ublic  services,  the  morn- 
ing and  evening  devotions  of  the  household, — all  will  have  a  bear- 
ing upon  tlje  act  about  to  take  place.  The  Sister  Superior  also 
gives  instruction  to  the  candidates.  In  addition,  these  have  abun- 
dant time  allowed  them,  to  examine  themselves,  and  to  study  the 
Word  of  God;  while  to  all  the  deaconesses  in  the  ^Motherhouse, 
this  is  a  season  of  spiritual  renewal.  In  the  Romish  Church,  cer- 
tain times  are  set  apart  for  spiritual  exercises,  for  spiritual  retreats, 
which  are  greatly  lauded,  because  of  their  profitable  results.  The 
seasons  of  preparation  in  our  deaconess  Houses  have  little  affinity 
with  the  Romish  convent  exercises.  But  this  may  be  said  of  them, 
that  they  are  usually  very  rich  and  precious  days  to  the  Sisters. 
The  desire  has  often  been  expressed,  that  all  the  older  Sisters  of  the 
Motherhouse  might  from  time  to  time  be  permitted  to  enjoy 
such  periods  of  spiritual  quiet  and  meditation.  The  ordinary  vaca- 
tions and  rests  do  not  answer  the  purpose.  While  we  are  resting, 
God  should  be  at  work  within  us.  But  this  requires  earnest  pre- 
paration and  care.  Unfortunately  their  numbers  are  too  limited, 
to  admit  of  regularly  reccuring  spiritual  as  well  as  physical  vaca- 
tions. They  are  therefore  obliged  to  help  themselves  as  well  as 
they  are  able.  The  Lord  does  not  fail  to  provide  seasons,  when 
He  approaches  them  in  peculiar  ways ;  such  as  He  gives  to  all 
christians,  to  arouse  them  to  meditation,  self-examination  and 
prayer.  These  are  the  best  seasons  of  preparation, — better  than 
any  that  can  be  arranged  by  man. 

91.  The  preparation  closes  on  the  eve  of  their  consecration 
with  a  service  of  confession  and  absolution  for  the  candidates. 
With  the  consecration  is  connected  the  full  morning  service  and 
celebration  of  the  Holy  Communion.  We  still  consider  this 
ancient  custom  appropriate  from  a  churchly  standpoint.  The 
sermon  is  followed  by  a  short  address  to  the  Sisters,  the  pastor 
standing  at  the  altar ;  whereupon  each  is  called  by  name,  and 
the  question  is  put,  which  embodies  the  vow  of  the  deaconess.  The 
wording  probably  varies  in  the  different  Houses.  In  the  one  in 
which   the  author  is  engaged,  it  is  asfollows  : 

''Having  been  instructed  from  the  Word  of  God,  how  to 
minister  in  the  Church  of  Christ,  I  now  ask  you  before  God 
and    His    holv    angels,    as    well    as    before    the    Christians    here 


-    101  — 

assembled, — is  it  your  purpose,  according  to  the  rules  of  our 
Lutheran  Cluirch  and  of  your  Motherhonse,  in  humility,  obe- 
dience and  faithfulness,  out  of  gratitude  to  your  Saviour,  to  serve 
as  deaconesses  in  His  Church,  as  He  may  give  you  grace, — 
if  so,  answer  yes,  and  give  me  your  hand  in  confirmation  of  your 
promise". 

The  question  is  put  to  the  Sisters,  all  standing,  by  the  pastor   of 
the   House ;  they  make    reply,   and    give   him    their  right    hand. 
It  is  not  to  be  considered  good    churchly  order,   that  they  should 
also  give  their  hand    to    the    Sistei*    Superior.     For  having  given 
it   to    the    pastor,    the    Sisters    bind  themselves    to    the  rules  of 
the  Motherhouse,  and  therefore  to  obedience  to  the  Sister  Superior. 
After  the  profession,  the  Sisters  kneel  on  the  steps  of  the  altar,  and 
the  consecration  follows   in  these  words  :    "May  Jesus  Christ,  the 
great  Shepherd  aricl  Bishop  of  your  souls,-  seal  your  profession  with 
His  gracious  and  almighty  Amen  !    And  I,  as  an  ordained  minister 
of  the  Church,  in  virtue  of  my  office  in  this  House,  aud  according 
to  the  measure  of  its  authority,  receive  you  into  the   Sisterhood   of 
our  deaconesses,  and  commit  to  you  their  office  and  ministry  in  the 
name  of  Jesus!    (laying  on  of  hands)    May  the  blessing  of  the 
Triune  God,  Father,  Son  and  Holy  Spirit  be  upon  you,  make  you 
faithful  unto  death,  and  oive  you  the  crown  of  eternal  life.  Amen." 
Then  follows,    again    with    the  laying    on   of  hands,  the  ancient 
prayer  of  consecration   for  deaconesses,  which  on  sound  scriptural 
ground,  expresses  in  strong  and  concise    terms,    what    in  this   im- 
portant moment  is  to  be    asked,    and    surely    is  asked  effectually, 
in    behalf  of  the    Sisters,    for   their   whole    life    in    the   calling. 
After    the    Lord's     Prayer,     the    pastor    and  the    older    deaco- 
nesses, gathered  around  tlie  newly  consecrated  Sisters,  salute  them 
with  the  greeting-  of  peace,  and  with  the  words  :  "May  the  beauty  of 
the  Lord  our  God  be  upon  you,  and  may  He  establish  the  work  of 
your  hands  upon  us."      The  ceremony  closes  beautifully  with  the 
responsive  recital  by  the  pastor  and  deaconesses  of  the  121.  Psalm, 
the  newly  consecrated  Sisters  reciting  the  first  two  verses.  The  Mag- 
nificat, a  short  hymn,  and  the  celebration  of  the  Floly  Communion 
for  the  Sisters  just  consecrated,  brings  the  service  to  its  culmination 
and  conclusion.     In  most  Houses  the  Sisters  at  their  consecration 
receive,  as  a  mark  of  their  calling,  a  small  silver  cross.  Less  suitable 
seems  to  us  the  gift  of  a  ring  on  this  occasion,  although  no  Sister 
must  be  censured,   if  a    ray    of  bridal    happinees    enhances   the 
joy    of  her  consecration.  But  at  the    same  time,  any  notion  that 
the  consecration  of  a  deaconess   signifies   in    a  special  sense   a  be- 
trothal to   the   Lord,    must   be   avoided.     All  christians,  who  by 
saving  faith  in   Christ    desire   to    live    and  to  die  unto   Him,  are 
betrothed  unto  the  Lord.  Deaconesses  are  the  same  as  all  christians, 
except  that,  like  every  body  else,  they  have  their  special  calling. 


—  102  — 

This  being-  a  calling  to  serve  in  the  J  louse  of  the  Lord,  they  receive 
their  consecration  at  His  altar.  That  on  such  a  day  the  Mother- 
house,  as  well  as  the  friends  and  relatives  of  a  Sister  should  en- 
deavor to  give  her  pleasun-  hy  evidences  of  loving  synij)athy,  is 
very  natural. 

d'2.  The  association  of  deaconesses  in  a  Motherhouse  may  be 
variously  constituted.  Circumstances  are  not  everywhere  the  same. 
It  would  seem  a  matter  of  course,  that  a  Sisterhood,  bound 
to  the  confession  of  the  Church,  cannot  receive  a  pastor  or 
director,  without  having  had  an  opportunity  of  expressing  an 
opinion  in  regard  to  his  appointment.  Managers  who  should  ignore 
this  privilege,  would  greatly  endanger  the  continuance  of  the  Sister- 
hood. The  right  of  suffrage  need  not  be  granted  the  Sisters,  al- 
though even  this  might  not  be  inappropriate,  if  the  election  were 
carefully  conducted  upon  religious  principles.  The  choice  of  a  Sister 
Superior  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  vow  of  the  Sisters. — It  is  a  very 
desirable  and  practical  arrangement,  to  have  an  independent  trea- 
sury, managed  by  the  Sister  Superior  in  the  interest  of  the  House 
and  Sisterhood,  whose  members,  beside  the  necessaries  of  life,  re- 
ceive from  the  Board  of  Managers,  a  small  allowance  of  pocket 
money.  By  this  independent  treasury  greater  freedom  of  action 
is  permitted  the  Superiors  of  the  House,  and  this  is  really  ne- 
cessary, if  the  Sisterhood,  although  not  publicly  and  legally,  yet 
privately  and  actually,  exists  as  a  congregation.  By  such  an  ar- 
rangement, the  churchly  relations  of  the  House,  which  cannot  be  as 
fullv  appreciated  by  the  managers,  as  by  the  members  of  the  house- 
hold, would  be  greatly  benefited.  Many  other  advantages  will  be 
secured  bv  it  for  the  House,  and  for  those  under  its  care. 

93.  The  life  of  the  Sisterhood  represents  on  a  small  acale  a 
w'orld  in  itself,  of  whose  many  interests  and  relations  outsiders  can 
scarcely  form  a  correct  idea.  In  the  distribution  of  labor,  many 
Sisters  are  unavoidably  subordinated  to  others;  yet  this  does  not 
interfere  with  the  actual  equality  of  all.  Such  a  supposition  must  not 
be  tolerated,  as  little  as  the  notion,  that  in  thesight  of  God  any  one 
form  of  labor  is  more  important  than  another.  Each  field  of  labor, 
each  member  of  the  whole,  has  its  own  use.  The  Sisters  are  called 
to  the  service  of  the  household  of  God  in  the  church,  and  nothing 
more  is  asked  ot  them,  than  that  they  be  found  faithful.  The  more 
fullv  a  Sister  becomes  one  with  the  Sisterhood,  the  more  will  its 
united  interests  become  her  own,  and  the  richer  her  life  will  be.  It 
is  difficult,  to  realize  the  multitude  of  interests  which  meet  to- 
gether in  the  Motherhouse.  Members  of  the  Sisterhood  are  stationed 
throughout  the  land,  and  the  ties  which  bind  them  to  the  life  of  the 
church,  are  becoming  more  and  more  numerous.  Private  and  public 
needs  touch  the  heart.  The  work  provides  new  duties,  new  points  of 
view,  new  problems  and   new  impulses,  in  inexhaustible   fulness 


—  103  — 

To  this  is  added  the  constant  activity  within  the  Sisterhood  itself. 
We  seethe  growth  and  progress,  the  spiritual  and  technical  advance- 
ment of  individuals.  The  diversity  of  relations  and  positions  inci- 
dent to  the  calling,  sharpens  the  perception.  The  heart  is  touched 
by  sickness,  by  recoveries,  by  death.  Contact  with  persons  of 
all  classes,  jonrneys,  and  the  interchange  of  experience,  often  with 
members  of  other  Motherhouses,  increase  knowledge,  broaden  the 
thoughts  and  enlarge  the  horizon.  As  the  Motherhouse  provides  for 
the  bodily  and  spiritual  nourishment  of  the  Sisters,  so  it  is  careful 
to  educate  them  in  the  perception  of  what  is  suitable,  beautiful  and 
lovely  in  a  christian  sense.  Churchly  and  family  festivals  are  ce- 
lebrated with  much  love  and  devotion  ;  nor  are  the  anniversaries  in 
the  life  of  individuals  disregarded.  Deaconess  Houses  should  de- 
light in  holding  festivals,  and  should  understand  how  to  conduct 
them.  God  has  given  to  most  Sisters  a  love  ot  flowers.  They 
should  therefore  learn,  in  an  intellectual  and  spiritual  sense,  to  see 
with  joy  and  gratitude  the  flowers  of  His  own  planting,  which  the 
faithful  God  permits  to  grow  in  the  path  of  their  life.  With  an 
appreciation  of  these  things,  and  especially  of  that  whi<!h  always 
remains  to  us  human  beings  the  most  interesting  of  all,  the 
mental  and  spiritual  growth  of  individuals, — we  can  understand 
that  amid  such  fullness  of  life  the  hearts  of  the  deaconesses  must 
continue  young  and  fresh,  and  that  they  are  like  trees  planted  by 
the  rivers  of  water. 

94.  The  deaconess  calling,  as  such,  does  not  endano-er  life  : 
neither  is  it  a  protection  against  contagion  and  danger.  Many 
Sisters  live  to  a  great  age.  All  Sisters  would  rather  be  called 
away  from  their  work,  than  bear  the  cross  of  long  years  of  inac- 
tivity before  their  departure.  But  this  burden  the  Lord  may  lay 
upon  the  very  one,  to  whom  it  seems  hardest.  Many  a  Martha  must 
be  educated  to  the  quietness  of  a  Mary.  Many  a  one  is  called  upon 
to  serve  her  fellow  Sisters  by  the  example  of  her  patient  cross-bear- 
ing. Older  Motherhouses  have  to  provide  a  place  of  rest  for  the 
deaconesses  who  have  become  incapacitated  for  work.  This  must 
be  near  enough  to  the  Motherhouse,  to  allow  a  full  participation 
in  its  life,  without  the  inmates  being  disturbed  by  its  activity. 

Among  the  most  painful  experiences  of  a  Sisterhood  is  to  see 
one  of  its  members  dismissed  on  account  of  unfaithfulness  or  wrong- 
doing, perhaps  eveu  bringing  dishonor  upon  the  community.  When 
on  the  other  hand,  the  Lord  calls  to  her  rest  a  Sister  who  has  labored 
faithfully,  there  is  sorrow  indeed,  but  also  gratitude  and  glad- 
ness. The  deaconesses  who  are  faithful  in  their  service,  often, 
amid  the  troubles  and  manifold  trials  into  which  their  calling  leads 
them,  attain  a  surprising  decision  and  steadfastness  of  faith ;  and 
experience  shows  that  upon  their  sick  and  dying  bed,  the  Lord, 
according  to  His  promise,  refreshes  them  abundantly.      Their  de- 


—  104  — 

sire  is,  to  continue  in  the  service,  or  to  depart,  as  their  Saviour 
wills.  The  deatii-hed  of  a  deaconess  is  to  the  whole  community 
a  visitation  of  the  Lord,  in  the  strictest  and  sweetest  sense  of  the 
Mord.  At  the  bier  of  a  departed  Sister,  rcstinji;  from  her  labors,  in 
her  white  sliroud,  the  myrtle  wreath  u])on  her  head,  and  the 
cross  upon  her  breast,  every  true  deaconess  will  earnestly  renew 
the  prayer  of  her  consecration  day,  for  faithfulness  unto  death. 

A  rare  but  precious  day  in  the  life  of  aged  deaconesses  comes 
when  the  Lord  permits  them  to  celebrate  their  jubilee, — the  twenty- 
fifth  anniversary  of  their  service.  Thejubilee  of  the  fiftieth  anniver- 
sary is  among  the  possibilities,  but  has  not  yet  occurred  in  the  history 
of  our  work.  On  the  occasion  of  the  jubilee,  a  ring,  as  a  symbol  of 
tried  faithfulness,  in  addition  to  the  Jubilee-Bible,  is  a  suitable  gift. 
A  ceremony  at  the  altar  is  one  of  the  features,  but  must  in  no  wise 
partake  of  the  nature  of  a  re-consecration.  A  true  deaconess  on 
such  days,  as  throughout  her  life  and  in  death,  will  ever- 
more gratefully  and  humbly  praise  and  acknowledge  the  mercy  of 
her  God,  in  that  the  lines  have  fallen  unto  her  in  pleasant  places, 
and  that  she  has  indeed  a  goodly  heritage. 


CHAPTER  X. 

The  Fields  of  Deaconess  Work* 

95.  In  order  to  convey  an  adequate  idea  of  the  importance  of 
the  female  diaconate  to  the  Church  of  our  day,  we  must  glance  at 
its  fields  of  labor.  We  can  take  as  a  starting-point  the  typical 
ministry,  which  women  exercised  toward  the  Lord  Himself  in  the 
days  of  His  earthly  life.  The  comparison  could  easily  be  carried 
out.  Childhood  and  youth,  food  and  raiment,  bonds  and  dishonor, 
suffering,  death  and  the  grave,  furnish  points  of  resemblance.  There 
was  not  lacking,  on  the  part  of  the  women  who  believed  in  Him,  a 
ministry  to  His  joy  and  honor,  as  well  as  to  His  needs.  It  will  be 
simpler  however,  to  proceed  from  the  reality,  as  we  see  and  ex- 
perience it.  Woman's  gilt  in  the  service  of  the  church  is  that  of 
rendering  help  (antilepsis),  especially  within  the  provinces  of  nursing 
and  teaching.  The  problems  correspond  to  the  conditions  of  the 
age.  In  general,  the  ministry  of  women  within  the  Church,  is  not 
"Home-Mission- Work",  which  is  a  service  necessitated  by  the  pe- 
culiar and  extraordinary  needs  of  the  Church  of  our  day.  At  all  times 
and  in  all  situations,  the  Church  has  needed  the  diaconate,  both  male 
and  female.  Even  though  she  has  not  always  possessed  it,  especially 
the  female  diaconate,  in  a  definite  form  and  in  a  public  capacity, 
yet  surely  in  no  age  has  the  gift  of  believing  women  been  entirely 
hidden,  nor  can  it  be  said,  that  there  has  ever  been  a  time,  when 
its  exercise  was  not  needed.  The  idea  of  Home  Mission  Work  in 
our  day  is  a  vague  one.  In  reality,  only  the  Church's  mission  among 
its  emigrated  members,  corresponding  to  the  work  of  the  Church 
among  the  heathen,  is  propei'ly  to  be  called  Home  Mission  Work, 
in  distinction  from  Foreign  Mission  Work. 

But  we  have  to  accept  the  idea  of  Home  Missions,  as  it  has 
shaped  itself  in  our  day.  And  here  it  is  the  special  churchly  needs 
of  the  present,  which  have  called  forth  a  variety  of  activities  here- 
tofore unknown.  The  female  diaconate  also  has  its  share  in  these 
labors,  and  in  so  far  as  this  is  the  case,  it  may  be  described  as  a 
branch  of  Inner  Missions.  But  as  this  applies  by  no  means  to  the 
entire  field  of  labor  of  the  Sisters,  this  distinction  is  best  omitted  al- 
together. The  idea  of  the  diaconate  fully  answers  to  the  sphere  ot 
duties,  with  which  we  have  to  deal,  and  is  far  preferable,  because 
of  its  ancient  churchly  significance  and  clearness. 


—   10(5  — 

i)(j.  AliioDg  tlic  labors  of  the  deaconesses,  niirsin;/,  and 
especially  the  care  of  the  sick — has  in  modern  times  obtained  great 
proniinenec.  This  is  doubtless  in  accordance  with  woman's  gifts. 
We  will  therefore  first  consider  nursing,  in  so  far  as  it  chieHv 
or  exclusively  deals  with  sick-nursing.  Under  this  head  must  be 
reckoned  the  care  of  the  sick  in  Hospitals  and  Infirmaries,  of  the 
inmates  of  Homes  for  the  Aged,  Insane  Asylums,  Institutions 
for  the  Blind,  &c. 

A  second  group  of  deaconess  labors  may  be  described,  primarily 
as  edacdtiottal.  Here  may  be  classed  the  service  of  deaconesses  in 
Day-Nurseries,  Little  Children's  Schools,  Homes  for  Girls,  In- 
dustrial and  Servants'  Training  Schools. 

A  third  group  may  be  characterized  as  a  combination  of 
nursing  and  teaching,  using  the  word  "nursing"  in  the  wider 
sense  of  woman's  activity  in  the  household.  Here  the  Sisters  have 
to  deal  with  persons,  whose  social  position  demands  protection, 
or  whose  moral  and  mental  condition  is  endangered.  The  service 
of  deaconesses  in  servants'  lodging-houses  and  hospices,  in  refor- 
matories, asylums,  and  prisons,  comes  under  this  class. 

All  the  work  here  mentioned  is  done  in  Institutions.  Neces- 
sary as  these  are,  and  important  as  is  the  division  of  labor  they 
permit,  yet  the  mosi  comprehensive  development  of  the  dea- 
coness activity  lies  elsewhere,  namely  in  the  work  of  the  parish. 
Here  too,  nursing  and  teaching,  both  to  be  understood  in  their 
widest  sense,  go  hand  in  hand.  Among  the  sick  and  the  poor  lie 
the  Sisters'  chief  duties.  Associated  with  the  pastoral  office,  their 
ministry  is  directly  incorporated  into  the  congregational  life. 
While  the  diaconate  of  the  present  day  cannot  dispense  with  the 
support  afforded  by  the  institutional  life,  it  is  in  the  parish- 
work  that  its  real  nature  manifests  itself  most  freely  and  fully. 
As  one  of  the  branches  of  parish-work,  may  be  mentioned  private 
nursing. 

If  to  these  fields  of  labor  we  add,  what  must  be  taken  for 
granted  in  connection  with  them  all,  namely  all  manner  of  service  in 
the  management  of  the  house  and  farm,  and  if  we  remember,  that  there 
is  also  a  ministry  of  beauty  and  honor,  which  in  the  deaconess  life 
takes  various  forms,  and  in  the  department  of  church  embroidery 
has  matured  some  of  its  choicest  fruits,  we  have  surveyed  the  en- 
tire territory  of  woman's  present  ministry  in  the  Church.  We 
turn  to  the  separate  branches,  in  the  order  indicated,  whose  impor- 
tance in  themselves  and  in  connection  with  the  Church  will  be 
briefly  presented. 


97.  The  care  of  the  sick  in  hospitals  is  the  result  of  neces- 
sity. During  epidemics,  when  sickness  multiplied,  or  care  and  shelter 
had  to  be  provided  for  homeless  strangers,  who  were  taken  ill,  the 


—  107  — 

hospital  has  at  all  tunes  baen  a  necessity  ;  the  more  so,  the  greater 
the  number  of  sick,  and  the  more  dangerous  the  nature  of  their  dis- 
ease. It  was  christian  charity,  whicih  founded  the  hospital  system. 
In  the  4th  century,  the  distinguished  teacher  of  the  christian 
Church,  Ephraira  the  Syrian,  placed  beds  for  the  sick  and  starving 
in  the  colonnades  at  Edessa  ;  while  Basil  the  Great,  Bishop  of  Ce- 
sarea  in  Cappadocia,  founded  an  entire  colony  for  the  sick,  for 
strangers  and  the  poor,  and  especially  for  lepers.  Small  houses, 
such  as  were  elsewhere  occupied  by  private  families,  were  built  side 
by  side.  In  the  Middle  Ages  the  civic  and  knightly  orders  for 
the  care  of  the  sick,  began  to  build  palatial  hospitals.  The  hospital 
of  the  Holy  Spirit  in  Rome,  and  the  labors  of  the  order  of  the  same 
name,  caused  hospitals  of  the  Holy  Spirit  to  be  established  all  over 
Europe.  In  recent  times  the  hospital  work,  partly  from  an  en- 
larged philanthropic  humanity,  and  partly  owing  to  the  progress  in 
medicine  and  surgery,  has  advanced  in  a  manner  heretofore  un- 
known. The  care  of  the  sick  by  religious  organizations  had  a 
prominent  share  in  this  development.  Yet  the  best  hospital 
system,  affording  its  patients  abundance,  of  light,  air,  and 
every  other  requisite,  together  with  the  most  excellent  medical 
skill,  is  incomplete,  without  proper  nursing.  Without  it,  many 
forms  of  treatment  cannot  be  carried  out  at  all.  The  service 
of  paid  nurses,  male  and  female,  has  often  been  the  worst  con- 
ceivable, chiefly  because  these  were  not  trained  to  the  work.  A 
great  improvement  has  taken  place  in  this  respect.  Such  dreadful 
conditions  as  in  former  times  prevailed  in  hospitals,  have  be- 
come impossible.  Professional  nurses  are  now  regularly  trained, — 
at  least  in  so  far  as  persons  are  found  willing  to  receive  such  train- 
ing. These  do  not  seem  however,  to  be  very  numerous.  Genuine 
sick-nursing  can  only  be  prompted  by  the  self-surrender  of  merci- 
ful love,  born  of  faith.  This  conviction  is  becoming  more  and 
more  general,  being  the  result  of  experience,  and  to  it  may  be 
ascribed  the  fact,  that  the  hospital  doors  have  been  opened  wide  to 
the  deaconesses.  The  care  of  the  sick,  and  the  hospital  manage- 
ment of  the  Sisters,  who  do  not  work  for  pay,  recommends  itself 
also  from  an  economical  point  of  view.  And  as  the  number  of 
hospitals  is  constantly  increasing,  smaller  ones  being  established 
in  small  towns,  the  number  of  Sisters  engaged  in  hospital 
work  is  very  large,  in  proportion  to  their  total  number. 

The  care  of  the  sick  in  the  larger  hospitals  is  classified  ;  cer- 
tain departments  being  appropriated  to  children  or  adults,  to  men 
or  women,  to  internal  diseases  or  surgical  cases.  The  erection  ot 
hospitals  for  special  forms  of  disease  has  also  been  inaugurated.  In 
smaller  hospitals,  the  classification  of  patients  is  of  course  less  com- 
plete, and  the  work  of  the  Sisters  is  rendered  more  difficult.  It  is  the 
duty  of  the  deaconesses,  in  every  kind  of  nursing,  to  satisfy,  to  the 


-    108  — 

best  of  their  5il)ility,  not  only  all  nudical  and  economical  require- 
ments, but  also  the  demands  of  christian  truth  and  charity.  The 
care  of"  the  sick  is  practised  bv  the  Sisters  sinii)ly  tor  its  own  sake, 
and  not  as  a  means  of  proselytinj::,  which  latter  is  on  ])rinciple  to 
be  condemned.  It  is  a  deviation  from  evangelical  truth,  when,  as 
is  sometimes  the  case  in  our  day,  over-si)iritual,  so-called  believers, 
are  indifferent  to  an  imitation  of  Christ  in  the  path  of  bodily 
helpiuo-  and  healing.  Inasmuch  as  the  Sisters  render  their  ser- 
vice, as  servants  of  Christ,  and  in  distinct  union  with  the  faith, 
ordinances  and  ministry  of  the  church,  the  ol)jcctiou  is  unfounded, 
that  their  labors  in  behalf  of  the  sick  are  not  d  stinguished  from 
a  service  of  secular  philanthropy,  or  from  mere  medical  aid.  It  is  a 
matter  of  regret,  that  the  hospital  service  withdraws  so  many  Sis- 
ters from  the  immediate  parish-service,  but  that  cannot  be  reme- 
died. Yet  the  hospital  work,  in  its  importance  for  the  church, 
must  not  be  undervalued.  The  requisition  of  Sislers  for  the  hospitals 
furnishes  a  strong  and  valuable  testimony  to  the  faith,  which  alone, 
notwithstanding  its  labor  and  unrest,  its  trials  and  dangers,  sustains 
the  strength  and  cheerfulness  needed  in  the  service  among  the  sick, 
and  preserves  to  the  Sisters  their  womanly  delicacy,  together  with 
firmness  and  unaffected  simplicity.  The  duty  is  also  laid  upon 
the  Church,  to  provide  spiritual  -care  for  the  sick  in  the  hos- 
pitals. Deaconesses  are  to  be  neither  physicians  nor  pastors.  Yet 
we  may  say,  that  precisely  in  the  hospitals,  a  spiritual  care 
of  the  sick  can  be  effected  only  by  the  nurses.  This  is  true,  not 
onlv  of  hospitals,  for  which  no  pastor  is  appointed,  but  also 
of  those,  which  have  their  pastor.  While  in  the  congregation 
the  pastor  is  acquainted  with  the  sick  in  their  ordinary  r^ircum- 
stances,  those  in  the  hospitals  are  removed  from  their  accustomed 
surroundings ;  the  visiting  pastor  does  not  easily  learn  to  know 
them,  and  is  further  embarrassed  by  the  fact,  that  usually  a  number 
of  patients  are  lying  together  in  one  room.  The  care  of  souls  among 
the  sick  rests  upon  a  knowledge  of  their  personality,  of  their  disease 
and  other  conditions.  All  this  is  most  readily  disclosed  to  the 
nursing  Sisters,  who  are  constantly  about  the  patients ;  they 
form  an  indispensable  link  between  the  pastor  and  the  sick ;  and 
what  is  of  greater  value,  than  all  direct  pastoral  influence,  they  fill 
the  hospital,  the  scene  of  such  manifold  forms  of  wretchedness, 
with  the  living  atmosphere  of  Christianity.  Wherever  deaconesses 
are  at  work,  there  is  a  christian  house-order,  there  God's  Word 
dwells,  there  is  prayer,  and  beautiful,  spiritual  hymns  are  heard. 
Although  the  Sisters  never  attempt  to  fbrcetheir  religion  upon  any, 
their  silent  labors  in  behalf  of  the  sufferers  speak  even  to  those,  whose 
ears  are  perhaps  closed  to  spiritual  comfort.  We  may  best  summarize 
the  importance  of  the  hospital  work  of  the  deaconesses,  by  saying 
that    necessity    calls    for   it,    and    love  commands  it,  and   that  it 


—   109  — 

practically  fulfills,  in  the  best  manner  possible,  an  undeniable  duty 
of  the  Church. 

98.  What  has  been  said  of  hospital-nursing,  is  generally  appli- 
cable to  the  work  in  Infirmaries,  or  Asijfums  for  Incurables.  Akin 
to  these  are  the  Homes  for  the  Aged,  in  which  the  old  and  infirm 
may  pass  the  ev^eniug  of  their  life  in  quietness  and  peace,  whether 
they  themselves,  the  parish,  or  the  beneficence  of  dece.isad  founders 
defray  their  expenses.  The  work  of  the  Sisters  demands  far  less 
technical  skill  in  such  institutions,  than  in  the  regular  hospitals. 
In  regard  to  the  faith  and  h^ve  which  must  animate  their  ministra- 
tions, the  demands  are  everywhere  the  same.  In  the  hospital,  pa- 
tients come  and  go  ;  the  diseases  in  their  course  often  excite  a  deep 
interest ;  different  stations  impose  different  duties.  Among  old 
people  and  in  infirmaries,  the  service  is  the  same,  day  by  day.  Chronic 
patients,  who  perhaps  have  suffered  for  years,  have  to  learn  and 
exercise  faith  and  patience  in  a  very  trying  school.  The  weakness  of 
old  age  necessitates  quietness  and  waiting  on  the  Lord.  Oftentimes 
old  people  relapse  into  second  childhood.  The  duty  of  the  nurse 
is,  to  deal  with  them  in  unwearying  patience  and  cheerfulness,  yet 
with  the  gravity  which  their  nearness  to  eternity  demands.  The 
Sister  in  the  children's  ward  of  the  hospital  deals  with  the  rising 
generation  ;  the  Sister  in  charge  of  the  aged,  with  the  dying  genera- 
tion. Both  here  and  there,  although  in  a  widely  different  manner,  it 
is  necessary  to  become  a  child  among  children.  Infirmaries  and  Old 
Peoples'  Homes  are  harbors,  where  the  ships  of  life  are  brought  to 
anchor,  mostly  in  such  a  state,  that  it  is  easy  to  see,  how  wind  and 
wave  have  buffeted  them  Often  the  result  of  a  long  life  is 
nothing,  or  less  than  nothing,  either  for  time  or  eternity.  Faith 
can  transfigure  a  dying  bed,  and  the  weakness  of  old  age  ;  and  we 
often  see  the  sunset  glory,  which  precedes  the  dawning  of  a  blessed 
eternity.  But  when  the  heart  has  not  turned  to  the  Lord  in  the 
years  of  its  strength,  it  is  seldom  that  old  age  repairs  what  was 
lost  in  youth.  Yet  true  to  His  promise,  the  Lord  carries  and  de- 
livers with  souls,  even  to  their  old  age  The  service  of  the  deaco- 
nesses in  Infirmaries  and  Old  Peoples'  Homes  is  therefore  dif- 
ficult and  yet  gratifying.  They  see,  even  more  rarely  than  is  usually 
the  case,  the  fruitVjf  their  labors  in  the  Lord's  service.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  the  latter  years  of  the  aged  and  suffering  are  made  pleasant 
through  their  efforts  ;  if  those,  who  perhaps  all  their  life-long  were 
strangers  to  the  Word  of  God,  now,  being  brought  under  Christian 
influence,  live,  as  it  were,  under  one  roof  with  the  Word  of  Life, 
their  labor  is  not  in  vain.  And  this  is  made  manifest  even  here 
beloAv.  Without  this  care,  given  in  the  Name  of  Jesus,  especially  to 
the  aged  and  infirm,  and  then  to  the  sick  in  our  hospitals,  it  would 
scarcely  be  })ossible  for  the  Church  to  minister  properly  to  these 
her    members.       In    this    respect   also,     the    diaconate    does    not 


—  no  — 

cease  to  be  an  auxiliary  office,  in  a  special  measnre  indispensable  to 
the  niinistrv  of  the  Word. 

99.  The  c(irc  of  the  J/wa/u',  just  the  same  as  general  hos[)ital 
work,  is  suitable  for  deaconesses,  only  that  the  lines  of  service  are  far 
more  closely  drawn.  Whoever  has  seen  the  beautiful  Institution  for 
Insane  Women  at  Kaiserswerth,  and  knows  how  important  for  men- 
tal sufferers  is  the  quiet,  steady  influence  of  truly  religious  persons, 
can  only  regret  that  the  female  diaconate  has  not  been  more  gene- 
rally enlisted  in  this  service.  There  are  among  women  many 
sufferers  from  mental  aberration,  who  are  not  fit  subjects  for  ordi- 
nary hospital  treatment;  are  not  far  enough  advanced  to  be  placed 
in  an  Insane  Asylum,  and  yet  cannot  remain  with  their  families. 
The  deaconess  hospitals  are  ready  to  serve  such  people,  wherever 
they  are  able.  Far  more  could  be  done,  if  there  were  special  in- 
stitutions for  the  proper  treatment  of  such  persons.  It  would  su- 
rely be  of  advantage,  if  among  female  sufferers  of  this  class,  the 
aid  which  the  deaconess  is  able  to  give  to  the  efforts  of  pastor  and 
physician,  could  be  made  more  generally  available. 

As  regards  the  care  of  the  blind,  deaf  and  dumb,  and  others  si- 
milarly afflicted,  it  does  not  seem  likely  that  this  will  ever  become 
an  extensive  branch  of  the  deaconess  work;  since  it  requires  pe- 
culiar technical  ability  adapted  to  the  purpose,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
blind  and  deaf-mutes.  It  is  different  with  the  institutions  for 
epileptics  and  idiots.  Only  in  modern  times  a  livelier  interest  has 
been  taken  in  making  provision  for  persons  suffering  from  physical 
defects,  and  also  of  epileptics  and  idiots. 

The  causes  of  epilepsy  have  thus  far  baffled  scientific  research. 
This  grievous  disorder  is  usually  aggravated  where  the  patient  re- 
mains with  his  family,  while  in  institutions  the  number  of  cures 
is  larger.  Institutions  for  epileptics  demand  a  numerous  stall'  of 
nurses.  In  the  case  of  epileptic  women  and  children,  deaco- 
nesses are  the  chosen  nurses.  Calm  and  strong  natures  quiet  the 
patients,  and  relieve  the  anguish  of  their  condition.  The  devotional 
life,  abundant  opportunities  for  work,  and  the  exercise  of  all  the 
faculties  form  the  basis  of  the  treatment. 

Incurable  epilepsy  often  leads  to  idiocy.  This  seems  to  be  a  sort 
of  mental  paralysis,  by  which  the  bodily  organs  of  the  intellectual 
life  more  or  less  refuse  their  service.  Here  too,  limits  will  con- 
tinue to  be  set  to  human  knowledge.  The  work  in  Idiot  Asylums, 
especially  in  those  for  children,  is  largely  educational.  The 
abler  pupils  sometimes  become  useful  members  of  society,  and 
the  greater  number  learn  something.  The  task  requires  great 
patience  The  strengthening  and  training  of  the  will-power  by 
unwearied  repetition  is  the  proper  mode  of  treatment.  Woman's 
gifts  are  most  available  in  these  cases.  She  renders  her  service 
to  such  as  continue  to  be  irresponsible    children,  even    after   they 


—  Ill  — 

reach  years  of  maturity.  Among  idiots,  the  emotional  side  of  human 
nature  seems  to  be  the  most  capable  of  development ;  and  they  are 
therefore  surprisingly  susceptible  to  christian  training  and  belief 
The  experience  is  often  made  in  institutions  of  this  kind,  that  the 
Lord  looks  with  special  favor  upon  these  unfortunates.  The  Sister 
who  with  the  necessary  self-discipline,  clearness,  and  faithfulness  in 
small  things,  relieves  the  misery  of  these  poor  in  spirit,  will 
receive  much  gratitude  and  affection,  and  will  realize,  far 
more  frequently  than  elsewhere,  that  her  labor  is  not  in  vain. 

In  order  to  labor  among  the  insane,  among  epileptics  and  idiots, 
the  mind  of  the  nurse  must  be  so  self-controlled,  and  at  the  same  time 
so  clear  and  sharp-sighted,  that  she  can  look  without  flinching  into 
the  prison-depths  of  mental  darkness.  One  who  cannot  keep  her 
own  nerves  and  thoughts  under  restraint,  is  not  the  proper  person 
for  the  care  of  those  whose  mind  and  nerves  are  disturbed.  Tne 
Church,  in  her  ministrations  to  this  class  of  afflicted  ones  also,  walks 
in  the  footsteps  of  her  Head  and  Saviour,  and  constantly  experiences 
anew,  what  is  written  in  St.  Matthew  17,  14 — 21. 


100.  In  the  foregoing  pages  we  have  already  touched  upon 
services,  which  are  also  educational,  pertaining,  to  be  sure,  to  the 
education  of  the  sick.  We  will  now  consider  the  actual  iLiorh  of 
education  of  the  deaconess,  among  those  in  good  health.  Even 
though,  as  in  the  case  of  babies,  its  principal  feature  is  the  care  of 
the  body,  yet  the  education  of  the  child  is  the  real  and  foremost  ob- 
ject in  view.  The  first  branch  of  the  deaconess'  educational  work 
to  be  considered,  is  the  Day  Nursery. 

Day  Nurseries  were  called  into  existence  in  1844,  through  the 
efforts  of  Marbeau,  an  official  in  the  municipal  government  of  Paris, 
and  have  come  into  very  general  use  in  France.  In  other  countries 
also,  especially  in  Southern  Germany,  they  have  made  themselves  a 
home.  They  are  an  expedient  for  the  mothers  who  are  obliged  to 
work  away  from  their  homes, — an  institutional  substitute  for  the 
placing  of  little  children  in  the  care  of  more  or  less  objectionable 
individuals.  Any  one  really  acquainted  with  the  needs  which  the 
Day  Nurseries  are  intended  to  meet,  knowing  the  great  mortality 
among  infants,  and  the  truly  horrible  conditions  which  often  ex- 
isted and  still  exist  in  private  nursing  establishments,  and  having 
any  conception  of  the  disorder  of  the  foundling-houses,  will  not 
attach  much  weight  to  the  objection  urged  against  Day  Nurseries, 
that  they  are  an  unnatural  institution.  Mothers  are  certainly  the 
persons  appointed  by  God,  to  take  care  of  their  children  ;  but  if  it 
is  unavoidable,  that  the  mother  must  go  out  to  work,  provision 
must  be  made  for  the  proper  care  of  her  little  children.     The  state 


—  112  — 

and  the  coinmiiiiity  have  a  share  in  this  ohlitj^ation.  But  if",  as  is 
generally  the  ease,  nothing  is  done  by  either,  and  the  Cluireh,  with 
equal  responsibility,  likewise  holds  aloof,  voluntary  christian 
ehai'ity  must  endeavor  to  remedy  the  want.  The  deaconesses 
may  regard  their  participation  in  the  work  of  the  Day  Xurseries 
as  a  religious  duty  toward  the  poor  mothers  and  their  babies. 
This  duty  is  to  be  performed  for  the  sake  of  Him  who  for 
us  lay  in  a  manger,  trom  which  the  Day  Nurseries  abroad  have 
taken  their  name  (Krippe,  Creche).  In  the  management  of 
Day  Nurseries,  care  must  be  had,  that  they  are  not  made  subser- 
vient to  the  mother's  laziness  and  sin.  The  age  of  admission  is 
from  SIX  weeks  to  two  years.  As  a  rule,  only  children  of  legi- 
timate birth  are  admitted.  If  exceptions  are  made,  the  case  must 
in  every  instance  be  examined  into.  The  children  must  be  brought 
and  called  for  by  their  mothers.  If  the  latter  are  employed  at  home, 
they  must,  if  possible,  keep  their  children  with  them.  It  indicates 
a  sound  condition  of  aifairs,  if  the  attendance  at  the  Day  Nursery 
is  fluctuating.  The  mothers  must  be  urged  to  great  cleanliness 
and  care  with  regard  to  their  children.  It'  possible,  they  must 
continue  to  nourish  their  babies,  and  must  therefore  visit  them  se- 
veral times  a  day.  The  deaconesses  employed  in  the  Nursery, 
share  with  the  mothers  the  responsibility  for  the  children,  in  sick- 
ness and  health,  and  must  therefore  endeavor  to  gain  their  confi- 
dence. Inasmuch  as  the  earliest  years  of  childhood  are  of  the  very 
greatest  consequence  in  the  development  of  the  individual,  the  Sis- 
ters in  the  Nursery  have  a  very  important  educational  work  to  per- 
form. The  careful  training  and  feeding  of  the  little  children,  al- 
though very  important,  is  but  a  part  of  their  duty.  The  Nursery 
must  be  a  cheerful  place,  and  the  Sister  must  rule  as  a  mother, 
tenderly  and  strictliy,  in  play  and  in  discipline.  The  quieter 
and  gentler  she  is,  the  kinder,  the  more  interested  and  prompt  in 
her  attention  to  the  children,  the  quieter  and  gentler  will  these  be- 
come. A  child-loving  heart  is  needed  for  the  task,  and  a  prayerful 
spirit,  which  continually  brings  the  little  ones  to  Jesus,  and  is  con- 
scious that  in  serving  them,  she  serves  Him  The  task  of  a  Nur- 
sery Sister,  notwithstanding  its  simplicity,  is  yet  a  very  difficult 
one,  demanding  for  its  success  much  grace  fi'om  God,  and  great 
faithfulness  in  small  things  ;  but  possessing,  according  to  the  Lord's 
Word,  a  beautiful  promise. 

101.  From  the  Nursery  we  come  to  the  Little  Children' x  School 
(Warteschule)',  which  is  closely  related  to  it.  Here,  children  from 
two  to  six  years  old,  are  received.  In  families  where  both  parents 
go  out  to  work,  children  at  this  age  also,  are  in  danger  of  being 
neglected.  Many  a  mother  cannot,  even  if  she  is  able  to  be  at 
home,  take  the  proper  care  of  her  little  ones.  The  children,  left 
to  themselves,  run  about  the  streets.     If  the  older  ones  are  to  take 


—  113  — 

care  of  them,  they  are  obliged  to  miss  school,  without  much  gain  for 
the  little  ones.  In  many  families,  an  utter  lack  of  discipline  is  the 
rule.  Even  though  the  parents  had  the  time,  they  lack  the  ability 
to  be  what  they  should  to  their  children.  These  grow  up  without 
prayer.  The  mother  cannot  relate  the  sacred  stories,  which  touch 
so  closely  and  tenderly  the  childish  heart, — because  she  does  not 
know  them  herself.  The  precious  years  of  childish  development 
pass  by,  without  the  child's  capacities  being  awakened,  and  without 
its  learning  cleanliness,  order  and  obedience.  These  considerations 
led  to  the  establishment  of  Little  Children's  Schools. 

The  first  beginning  was  made  by  a  devout  young  girl,  Louise 
Scheppler,  of  Bellefosse  in  Alsace,  the  servant  of  Pastor  Oberlin, 
of  Waldbach  in  the  Steinthal,  The  Steinthal  (Stone  Valley)  in 
the  Vosges  mountains,  was  inhabited  by  a  poor  and  degraded 
population.  Oberlin's  faithful  labors  wrought  in  them  a  complete 
change,  in  material  as  well  as  in  spiritual  things.  Valuable  aid  in 
his  work  was  rendered  him  by  the  young  woman,  who  on  June  11, 
1779,  at  the  age  of  sixteen,  entered  his  service.  Oberlin  had 
recognized  her  peculiar  talent,  Avhen  he  saw  her,  as  a  little  girl, 
devote  herself  to  the  care  of  a  frightened  hen  and  her  chickens. 
After  the  death  of  his  wife,  she  took  charge  of  his  household,  al- 
though then  only  twenty  years  of  age,  and  raised  his  seven  child- 
ren. To  the  sick  and  needy  of  the  entire  parish,  she  brought  help 
for  body  and  soul.  She  fe  ired  no  weather,  no  exertion,  no  distance. 
But  most  especially  were  the  children  of  the  parish  the  objects  of 
her  compassion.  She  gathered  them  in,  employed  them,  told  them 
of  the  Saviour,  and  possessed  the  rare  gift  of  permanently  winning 
the  aftection  not  only  ot  larger  girls,  but  of  little  children.  Her 
school  finally  numbered  nearly  a  hundred  pupils.  The  French 
Academy  awarded  her  the  Prize  of  Virtue  of  5000  francs,  all  ot 
which  she  devoted  to  charity.  She  herself  chose  the  text  of  her 
funeral  sermon  from  St.  Luke  17,  10  :  ,,When  ye  shall  have  done 
all  those  things  which  are  commanded  yoti,  say  :  We  are  unprofit- 
able servants  :  we  have  done  that  which  was  our  duty  to  do."  She 
died  in  the  year  1837,  and  her  name  shines  among  the  most  promi- 
nent in  the  history  of  the  female  diaconate,  although  she  wore  no 
deaconess  dress.  The  idea  of  little  childrens'  schools  seemed  at  that 
time  to  pervade  the  atmosphere.  In  Germany,  and  especially  in 
England,  beginnings  were  made,  independent  of  the  work  in  Stein- 
thal, The  plan  first  obtained  general  acceptance  in  England,  then  in 
France,  and  finally  in  Germany.  It  was  Fliedner  especially,  who 
established  the  standard  regulations  for  these  schools,  and  wath  his 
assistant  Ranke,  carried  them  to  perfection..  The  Kaiserswerth 
Seminary  for  teachers  of  little  children's  schools,  has  become  an 
unsurpassed  model  and  a  nursery  for  this  branch  of  the  work, 
in  so  far  as   it  is  carried    ojii  by  the  Deaconess  Houses.     Two 


—   114   — 

M(jtherhouses,  of  very  recent  origin,  almost  exclusively  adopted 
this  form  of  the  work.  All  deaconess  Houses,  to  some  ex- 
tent, furnish  Sisters  for  this  department,  and  some  have  semi- 
naries for  the  training  of  such  teachers.  There  are,  to  he  sure, 
other  training-institutions  for  this  })urj)ose,  which  have  little  or  no 
connection  with  the  deaconess  work. 

The  objections  urged  against  tliese  schools,  are  in  part  similar 
to  those  made  against  the  Nurseries.  Surely,  the  home,  of  which 
a  faithful  mother  is  the  soul,  and  helievingly  and  sensibly  fulfils 
her  duty,  is  the  best  place  for  the  little  ones.  But,  as  we  have  al- 
ready observed,  such  homes  are  rare,  not  only  among  the  poor,  but 
among  the  well-to-do.  The  need  for  little  children's  schools  reaches 
far  beyond  the  need  for  Day  Nurseries.  When  it  is  said,  either 
that  they  blunt  the  children's  mental  faculties,  or  force  them  pre- 
maturely, this  reproach  applies  only  to  badly  conducted  schools. 
It  is  certainly  unpardonable,  that  persons  wholly  untrained  for  the 
work,  are  still  here  and  there  permitted  to  support  themselves  by 
managing  Little  Children's  Schools.  The  argument,  that  a  mother, 
without  previous  training,  takes  care  of  her  children,  does  not  ap- 
ply in  this  case.  Many  mothers  are,  unfortunately,  by  no  means 
equal  to  their  high  calling;  and  besides,  the  ability  to  control  five 
children  is  not  sufficient  for  fifty.  In  order  to  maintain  peace, 
order  and  happiness  among  so  many,  an  adequate  education  and 
previous  training  are  needed,  in  addition  to  the  necessary  natural 
gifts.  The  Little  Children's  School  must  be  a  play-school,  a 
nursery  on  a  large  scale.  The  children  learn  by  playing,  and  by 
play  their  faculties  are  awakened.  They  must  be  trained  to  good 
behavior  and  cleanly  habits,  and  above  all,  must  be  taught  the  be- 
ginnings of  the  knowledge  of  the  Divine  Word,  in  a  motherly,  not 
in  a  schoolmasterly  manner.  The  children  are  not  to  be  estranged 
from  their  natural  condition  in  life. 

The  Little  Children's  School  thrives  best  in  connection  with 
parish-work,  under  the  Judicious  guidance  of  the  pastor.  The  dea- 
coness thus  employed  renders  to  the  church  and  to  the  community  a 
service,  which  is  well  calculated,  to  bring  an  abundant  blessing  to 
parents  and  children.  A  Sister,  to  conduct  such  a  school  with  success, 
must  possess  a  motherly  heart,  the  gifts  of  song  and  story-telling, 
a  cheerful  and  patient  manner  with  children,  a  mind  not  pre- 
occupied with  personal  concerns,  a  spirit  trusting  in  Christ,  an  in- 
ventive faculty  for  devising  all  sorts  of  games  and  occupations  for 
the  children,  and  finally,  the  gift  of  order  and  discipline,  not  only 
in  regard  to  her  charges,  but  for  her  own  person.  She  must  also 
know  how  to  gain  and  cultivate  the  confidence  of  the  mothers,  and 
must  visit  the  children  in  their  homes,  especially  if  they  are  ill. 
A  Women's  Aid  Society  can  render  the  Sisters  valuable  assistance, 
but  must  not  embarrass  lier  by  a  many-headed  supervision.  Suitable 


—  115  — 

festivities,  on  churchly  and  patriotic  occasions,  must  not  be  omit- 
ted. The  christian  Little  Children's  School  must  be  a  scene  of 
really  fresh  and  happy  child-life,  tree  from  any  religious  aifecta- 
tion,  simple  and  ti'ue  in  work  and  play, — then  the  Angels  of  God 
will  love  it,  and  daily  bring  it  light  from  the  children's  heavenly 
Father,  whose  face  they  evermore  behold,  as  the  Lord  has  said. 

102.  As  circumstances  are  in  our  time,  a  more  extensive  co- 
operation of  deaconesses  in  the  province  oi\female  education  is  not 
for  the  present  to  be  expected.  In  the  Romish  church  it  is  very 
different.  As  far  as  we  know,  only  a  small  number  of  Kaisers- 
werth  Sisters  are  as  yet  employed  in  public  elementary  schools  for 
girls.  No  doubt  this  would  be  different,  if  the  tie  between 
church  and  state  were  loosened.  The  higher  female  education  has 
only  of  late  years  been  taken  in  hand  by  the  state.  Heretofore  it 
was  mostly  a  private  affair.  For  this  reason  probably,  some  of 
the  older  Motherhouses  have  acquired  an  extensive  activity  in  this 
province, — notably  Kaiserswerth,  which  even  has  a  Teacher's 
Seminary,  also  Strasburg,  Neuendettelsau  and  Dresden.  It  is  evi- 
dent that  in  this  direction  the  Deaconess  Houses  might  have  a  great 
mission  for  the  church.  Female  education  will  always  thrive  best 
in  privacy.  Therefore  the  best  public  schools  for  the  higher  edu- 
cation of  girls,  will  never  wholly  crowd  out  the  private  schools. 
The  deaconess  schools, — and  this  is  their  pre-eminent  advantage, — 
have  as  their  background  the  rich,  religious  life  of  the  Mother- 
house.  The  entire  course  of  female  education  can  therefore  be  the 
more  refined  and  higher  in  its  aims,  in  proportion  as  it  is  removed 
from  fashionable  folly  and  nervous  restlessness.  The  religious  con- 
sistency to  be  airqed  at  in  education,  can  be  strictly  maintained ;  and 
the  cultivation  of  the  intellect  will  not  gain  the  ascendency  over  the 
cultivation  of  the  heart.  Ample  opportunity  is  offered  for  the  train- 
ing of  the  practical  faculties.  The  simplicity  of  living  makes  it  pos- 
sible to  do  the  work  on  such  reasonable  terms,  that  the  home  education 
of  young  girls,  if  the  same  results  are  to  be  reached,  is  not  cheaper, 
but  rather  more  costly.  We  may  incidentally  mention,  that  through 
the  educational  work,  many  excellent  elements  are  added  to  the  sister- 
hoods of  deaconesses,  which  would  otherwise  remain  aloof  from  it, 
and  that  the  life  of  the  Motherhouse  is  greatly  enriched  by  this 
activity.  A  detailed  consideration  of  this  matter  would  exceed  the 
limits  of  our  subject. 

103.  Two  further  branches  of  female  education  have,  through 
the  needs  of  our  time,  fallen  to  the  share  of  the  deaconesses,  in 
some  cases  to  a  considerable  extent.  First  to  be  mentioned,  is  the 
training  of  servant-girls  in  institutions  established  for  that  purpose, 
and  for  the  most  part  managed  by  deaconesses.  They  also  conduct 
Industrial  Schools,  whether  as  modest  branches  of  the  parish-work, 
or  as  independent  institutions.     The  training  of  girls  for  domestic 


—   IK)  — 

service  is  necessary,  because  in  the  families  of  many  working- people, 
especially  in  large  cities,  the  growing  girls,  while  they  attend 
school,  have  no  opportunity  of  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  such 
duties.  The  same  is  true  of  sewing,  knitting,  etc.,  which  are  indeed 
taught  in  the  public  schools,  but  not  in  a  manner  calculated  to  meet 
reasonable  requirements ;  even  the  slight  dexterity  needed  by 
every  housewife,  is  frequently  not  acquired.  It  is  not  our  purpose, 
however,  to  enter  upon  the  extensive  domain  of  the  servant  ques- 
tion. No  proof  is  required  to  convince  us,  that  the  deaconesses 
engaged  in  the  practical  training  of  girls,  have  a  very  important 
field  to  cultivate  within  the  church,  one  which  bears  many  thorns 
and  thistles,  but  also  much  precious  fruit.  For  this  work  the 
Sisters  need  chiefly  a  large  measure  of  experience,  by  which  alone 
the  necessary  educational  gifts  are  brought  to  their  full  develo])- 
ment.  They  scatter  their  seed,  like  all  husbandmen  of  Christ,  and 
must  wait  in  patience  until  it  receives  the  morning  and  the  eve- 
ning rain. 

We  cannot  recognize  Sunday-school  work  as  a  special  branch 
of  the  deaconess  activity.  It  is  to  be  recommended  only  to  a 
limited  extent,  and  only  if  they  are  in  a  position,  to  give  the  child- 
ren continued  attention  during  the  week.  This  is  rarely  the  case. 
Deaconesses  who  are  wholly  occupied  with  their  calling,  and  fre- 
quently change  their  stations,  can  usually  do  little  in  this  direction. 
They  also  need  the  Sunday-rest  for  themselves.  But  even  if  they 
have  time  and  strength  for  this  work,  it  is  not  to  be  considered  as 
an  actual  duty,  incident  to  their  calling. 


104.  We  have  mentioned  above  a  third  group  of  deaconess- 
work  as  a  combination  of  niwaing  and  teaching.  Nursing  is  not  only 
the  care  of  the  sick,  but  includes  woman's  entire  activity  in  the 
household.  The  more  the  work  enters  into  the  congregational 
life,  the  more  will  it  partake  of  this  twofold  nature;  subject,  to  be 
sure,  to  innumerable  gradations,  one  or  the  other  feature  becoming 
more  prominent.     We  have  first  to  deal  with  institutions. 

The  dangers,  to  which  servant  girls  without  positions  are  ex- 
posed, especially  in  the  larger  cities,  have  caused  the  establishment 
of  servants''  Inns  or  Lodging-houses.  These  are  frequently  managed 
by  deaconesses,  often  in  connection  with  servants'  training-schools. 
Christian  charity  has  an  urgent  call  in  behalf  of  girls,  who 
stand  alone.  If  the  christian  inns  are  a  great  benefit  to  all  who  are 
obliged  to  live  among  strangers,  this  is  most  especially  true  in  the 
case  of  solitary  women,  servants  and  working-girls.  Where  it  is  pos- 
sible to  secure  the  services  of  a  deaconess  in  a  ladies'  hospice,  she 
will  find  it  a  congenial  and  profitable  employment.     The  latter,  of 


—  117  — 

course,  cannot,  in  point  of  importance,  be  classed  with  the  servants' 
inns.  Properly  manao;ed,  these  become  gathering-places  for  re- 
spectable girls.  Families  will  prefer  their  agency  in  procuring 
servants.  The  superintending  deaconess  has  an  opportunity  of 
exercising  a  silent  and  often  very  far-reaching  influence  upon  the 
conditions  of  service.  The  lodging-house  offers  to  the  girls  whole- 
some Sunday-enjoyment,  and  by  its  means  seeks  to  preserve  them 
from  the  dangerous  pleasures  of  the  world.  If  possible,  it  watches 
over  their  religious  life,  and  induces  them  to  attend  a  suitable 
place  of  worship.  A  knowledge  of  human  nature  ;  foresight  and 
forbearance,  such  as  can  be  exercised  only  by  a  heart  resting 
in  grace,  and  enlightened  by  the  Word  of  God  ;  a  thorough, 
kindly,  untiring  sympathy  with  the  girls,  which  never  ob- 
trudes, and  yet  is  ever  ready  to  serve  them, — these  are  some  of  the 
requisites  for  the  work  in  the  lodging-houses.  All  that  the  diaco- 
nate  is  able  to  effect  within  this  province,  will  not  remove  the  existing 
great  evils,  but  will  often  ameliorate  them  ;  and — a  chief  considera- 
tion— it  shows  that  the  church,  the  woman  seeking  her  lost  piece 
of  money,  has  carried  her  lighted  candle  also  into  this  portion  of 
her  vast  hou&e.  The  latter  is  true,  in  an  even  greater  measure,  of 
the  labors  which  may  be  designated  as  rescue-work  among  those 
who  are  morally  and  spiritually  endangered. 

105.  The  Houses  of  Refuge  and  Asylums  for  neglected  children, 
as  they  have  been  developed  by  men  like  Joh.  Falk,  Zeller, 
Wichern  and  others,  offer  to  deaconesses  a  field  of  labor  only  in  so 
far  as  they  deal  with  girls.  Neglected  girls  are  fewer  in  number, 
than  neglected  boys.  Separate  institutions  for  girls,  although  rare, 
are  desirable.  Where  they  exist,  they  wdll  find  it  to  their  ad- 
vantage, to  procure  from  the  deaconess  houses  the  persons  needed  for 
their  management  and  for  the  education  of  the  children  ;  if  for  no 
other  reason,  than  that  the  uniform  continuance  of  the  work  is  thus 
secured.  The  education  of  oryjAa/i  ^rir^*,  and  the  superintendency 
of  the  places  known  as  "Girls'  Homes",  where  poor  girls  receive 
food,  instruction  and  employment  out  of  school  hours,  are  akin  to 
the  work  in  the  Rescue-Houses,  but  differ  from  it  as  regards  the 
moral  condition  of  the  children.  Whether  the  agency  is  to  be 
of  a  preventive  and  protective  nature,  or  proposes  the  actual 
rescuing  of  more  or  less  depraved  children, — the  chief  object  is,  if 
possible,  to  make  the  Gospel  of  Peace  a  power  within  their  hearts. 
Not  restraint  and  severity,  but  love  born  of  the  experience  of  grace, 
is  the  first  means  of  education.  To  this  must  be  added  of  course  an 
energetic  training  in  discipline,  order  and  industry.  For  this  very 
reason  it  is  difficult  to  find  persons  adapted  to  the  work.  The  value 
in  God's  sight  of  each  individual  human  soul  must  be  vividly 
realized  by  the  deaconess  who  is  called  to  it.  She  must  have  ex- 
perienced baptismal  grace  within  herself.     She  must  influence  less 


—   118  — 

by  words,  than  by  her  example ;  above  all,  she  must  not  talk 
too  much.  And  she  must  be  able  to  pray  ;  then  her  sowing  in 
hope  will  in  due  time  bring  its  fruits. 

106.  The  task  set  before  the  deaconesses  in  the  M<i(/(hiJcn 
Asylums,  among  the  fallen  of  their  sex,  is  a  particularly  difficult 
one.  The  warfare  against  immorality  and  unchastity  demands 
these  asylums ;  and  Fliedner's  eiforts  in  this  form  of  charity  be- 
came the  cradle  of  the  modern  diaconate.  A  discharged  female 
convict  was  his  first  charge.  Through  Fliedner  and  through 
Helding,  of  Steenbek  in  Holland,  the  Magdalen  Asylum  was  first 
established  upon  a  large  scale.  It  is  more  and  more  recognized 
and  acted  upon,  that  the  Church  cannot  and  dare  not  keep  aloof 
from  this  work.  Experience  teaches,  that  deaconesses,  if  they  are 
the  right  persons  for  this  work,  are  equipped  with  a  hidden  power, 
over  against  these  most  miserable  of  their  sex.  Very  similar  to 
the  work  among  the  fallen  is  that  in  F.emale  Penitentiaries,  which 
however  the  Motherhouses  have  only  in  isolated  cases  found  an 
opportunity  of  untertaking.  The  Sisters  laboring  among  such 
deeply  fallen  girls  and  women,  must  learn  with  a  clear  eye  and 
a  steadfast  heart  to  fathom  the  abysses  of  sin.  Illusions  are  use- 
less. The  lust  of  the  flesh,  the  lust  of  the  eye,  and  falsehood  have 
wrought  the  desolation.  A  foundation  upon  which  to  stand  must 
first  of  all  be  secured,  in  God's  eternal  truth,  and  in  strict  insistence 
upon  truthfulness.  But  afterwards,  the  labor  of  truly  compassionate 
love  in  Christ,  among  these  souls  who,  oppressed  by  the  fearful 
misery  of  sin,  have  learned  to  look  about  them  for  deliverance,  is  by 
no  means  hopeless,  even  though  many  relapses  occur.  A  chief  means 
of  rescue  is  severe  physical  labor.  And  a  Magdalen  Asylum  must  be 
able,  by  such  labor,  almost  entirely  to  support  itself.  The  deaconess 
must  be  capable  of  superintending  the  work  ;  she  must  be  candid 
and  straightforward  in  her  intercourse  with  those  under  her  care  ; 
with  patience  exercise  love  and  severity,  and  in  the  face  of  so  much 
sin  and  uncleanness,  pray  the  more  fervently  through  the  blood 
of  Christ,  for  a  clean  heart.  If  she  is  sustained  in  her  efforts  by 
the  faithful  co-operation  of  the  pastoral  office,  which  in  this  field 
she  can  least  of  all  dispense  with,  the  female  diaconate  will  here 
show  itself  like  unto  Deborah,  gaining  the  victory,  where  man 
alone  would  despair  of  success.  Would  that  church  and  state,  as 
regards  prisons,  would  more  than  heretofore  realize,  that  for 
the  work  at  the  outposts  in  the  warfare  against  the  kingdom  of 
darkness,  God  has  bestowed  upon  woman  gifts  to  be  used  in  His 
service. 

107.  Whatever  practice  a  deaconess  is  able  to  acquire,  in  the 
various  offices  entrusted  to  her,  will  be  found  useful,  when  she 
is  called  upon  to  undertake  the  work  of  a  parish.     The  Mother- 


—  119  — 

houses  fitly  designate  this  as  the  crown  of  their  labors.  By  a 
parish  we  understand  a  congregation,  with  official  organization. 
Even  though  the  parish-work  may  be  under  the  management  ot 
societies  or  magistrates,  it  yet  belongs  to  the  Church,  inasmuch  as  it 
can  and  must  exist,  only  in  subordination  to,  and  in  harmony  with 
the  pastoral  office.  Otherwise  it  would  not  be  a  diaconate.  Ol 
course  this  does  not  exclude,  that  the  community  at  large  is  like- 
wise benefited,  and  that  the  deaconesses  yield  due  submission  to  their 
special  boards  of  managers.  But  they  do  this  as  servants  of  the 
churchly  community  ;  as  called  to  serve  the  Lord  among  His 
members,  and  therefore  owing  obedience  to  the  pastoral  office,  and 
to  the  rules  of  the  Church. 

Parish-work  is  a  service  among  the  sick,  the  infirm,  the  weak 
and  poor,  and  the  helpless  in  body  and  soul,  such  as  are  tound  in 
the  families  of  a  congregation ;  the  same,  to  whom,  with  word  and 
deed,  the  pastoral  office  is  called  to  minister.  But  the  shepherds  in 
the  church  can  often  fulfil  these  duties  only  to  a  limited  degree. 
Therefore  they  need  the  co-operation  of  the  diaconate, — all  the 
more  if  the  parish  is  large,  and  the  conditions  difficult.  In 
very  large  parishes,  a  service  of  deaconesses  alone  is  not  sufficient ; 
a  service  of  deacons  must  be  added.  But  for  the  first  and  more 
urgent  needs,  and  in  parishes  of  moderate  size,  the  former  will 
answer;  the  deaconesses  of  course,  must  be  in  numbers  correspond- 
ing to  the  magnitude  of  the  work.  They  are  the  aids  of  the  pastoral 
office ;  and  the  more  they  are  able  to  work  in  harmony  with  it,. 
the  more  will  it  affijrd  them  support  and  guidance,  and  the  more 
cheerfully  will  they  perform  their  duties.  Inasmuch  as  the  in- 
terests of  the  municipal  authorities  or  private  societies,  who  call  the 
deaconesses  to  the  parish,  are  directed  to  the  care  of  the  sick  and 
destitute,  who  are  at  the  same  time  the  objects  of  pastoral  care,  the 
Church  can  only  rejoice,  to  see  the  parish- work  thus  established. 
A  conflict  of  interests  is  scarcely  likely  to  occur.  Nor  will  the 
interests  ot  the  physician  in  charge  be  likely  to  conflict  with  those 
of  the  pastor  and  other  promoters  of  the  work.  The  municipal  care 
of  the  poor  cannot  without  loss  dispense  with  churchly  and  vo- 
luntary co-operation.  And  again  the  latter  cannot  do  without  the 
former,  which  steps  in  where  the  diaconate  and  christian  charity 
cannot  help,  without  becoming  untrue  to  themselves.  Thus  the 
service  of  deaconesses  in  the  parish,  when  once  it  is  introduced, 
usually  develops  simply  and  naturally,  in  accordance  with  the 
various  demands  made  upon  it.  Indeed,  the  inward  vitality  of  the 
diaconate,  and  the  need  of  it,  are  so  great,  that  its  progress  is  not 
hindered  by  the  indifference  or  resistance  of  one  or  the  other  party. 
Following  their  quiet  path  of  humble,  kindly  ministry,  the  Sisters, 
often  to  their  own  surprise,  pass  easily  and  without  hindrance 
over  many  prejudices.      Mulhouse,  in  Alsace,  furnishes  a  splendid 


-  120  — 

example,  where  the  demands  of  the  pastoral  office  and  the  re- 
ligious life,  of  a  hioh  state  of  industrial  advancement,  of  an  ex- 
tensive municipality,  of  a  careful  observance  of  sanitary  laws,  are 
harmoniously  m^t  by  a  generally  developed  system  of  parish-work 
by  deaconesses,  rich  and  poor  alike  sharing  in  its  blessings.  Other 
similar  examples  might  be  cited,  but  none  are  (tarried  out  so  syste- 
matically in  every  direction.  The  deaconesses  here  form  the  con- 
necting link  between  ri(!h  and  poor,  without  dispensing  the  former 
from  personal  co-operation  in  the  work.  It  must  not  be  overlooked 
that  such  parish-work,  in  addition  to  its  spiritual  importance,  and 
its  immediate  benefit  as  an  evidence  of  practical  Christianity,  con- 
tributes largely  to  the  solution  of  the  social  ])roblem.  It  is  only 
to  be  regretted,  that  the  ready  co-operation  of  many  cannot 
always  be  secured,  for  by  it  alone  considerable  results  can  be 
attained. 

The  deaconesses  eniployed  in  a  parish  need  practical  wisdom 
and  active  energy.  They  must,  with  common-sense,  circumspection 
and  kindness,  discriminate  between  truth  and  falsehood  ;  must 
distinguish  real  from  mistaken  help  ;  they  must  be  able  to  act  with 
readiness,  and  yet  with  forethought,  and  be  prepared  to  face  the 
deepest  misery,  the  most  pitiable  depravity.  They  must  be  equally  at 
home  in  the  kitchen,  at  the  wash-tub,  by  the  sick-bed,  and  in  the 
managers'  offices.  They  must  procure  assistance,  where  their  own 
strength  is  not  sufficient,  as  for  instance  in  night- watching;  but  must 
at  all  times  themselves  set  the  example.  They  see  much  sorrow, 
wretchedness  and  danger.  They  dare  not  despond  with  the  faint- 
hearted, nor  become  excited  with  the  restless,  and  yet  they  must  be 
able  to  weep  with  them  that  weep,  and  rejoice  with  them  that  do  re- 
joice. They  must  learn  to  ask,  without  being  importunate;  they 
must,  with  ready  tact,  assist  the  physician,  and  adapt  themselves  to 
difficult  situations  among  rich  and  poor.  They  must  be  communica- 
tive and  yet  discreet ;  motherly  toward  the  children,  the  poor  and  the 
sick ;  able  to  pray,  and  without  intrusiveness  and  self-importance,  to 
serve  souls  by  jaithful  intercession  and  heartfelt  words  of  comfort. 
"Blessed  wonder-workers"  some  one  has  called  them.  There  is  no 
faculty  of  christian  womanhood,  which  does  not  find  employment  in 
this  work.  May  the  Lord  grant  that  persons  be  found  in  increasing 
numbers,  who  count  it  grace,  in  humility  and  faithfulness  to  strive 
to  fulfil  this  office  so  necessary  and  precious.  Not  every  deaconess 
can  be  a  parish  Sister.  Of  none  can  it  be  said,  that  she  meets  every 
requirement.  But  each  may  ask  the  Lord,  if  it  be  His  will,  to  pre- 
pare and  strengthen  her  for  this  service.  And  each  may  rejoice,  if 
the  Lord  permits  her  to  be  a  helpmate  of  truth,  a  successor  to  the 
parish  deaconess  Phoebe,  whom  St.  Paul  commends,  as  having 
been  a  succourer  of  many,  and  of  him  also.  The  female  diaconate 
within  the  congregation  stands  upon  a  foundation,  which,  unlike  that 


—  121  — 

of  the  institution,  is  an  altogether  natural  one,  and  prevents  the 
growth  of  one-sided  notions.  To  be  sure,  the  order  and  protec- 
tion of  the  institution  are  lacking  as  well.  The  parish  deaconess 
must  carry  order  within  herself.  She  is  fortunate,  if  she  enjoys 
the  protection  and  advice  of  the  pastor's  family,  congenial  in  love 
and  faith.  For  the  rest,  the  Lord  Himself  will  be  her  best  Pro- 
tector, whose  angels,  according  to  His  promise,  will  guard  her  in 
all  her  ways. 

108.  The  first  aim  of  parish-work  is  to  aid  the  poor.  But  the 
deaconesses  must  also  be  prepared  to  render  help  in  the  homes  of  the 
wealthy,  in  times  of  need.  This  service  is  termed  private  nursing. 
The  parish-Sister,  even  when  she  is  laboring  for  the  rich,  is  in  a 
position  to  benefit  the  poor;  for  it  is  the  wealthy  who  must  fill  her 
hands  with  gifts  for  the  needy.  In  well-ordered  parish-work  there 
must  be  no  remuneration  for  the  Sister's  services.  Least  of  all 
must  the  managers  endeavor  to  obtain  from  private  cases  an  increase 
for  their  treasury.  The  Sister's  service  belongs  to  the  poor,  and  if 
the  rich  show  their  gratitude  for  assistance  rendered,  their  gifts 
must  be  at  her  disposal,  to  be  used  in  behalf  of  the  poor.  Other- 
wise the  main  artery  of  parish-work  is  cut  oif.  The  Sister  must 
have  money  in  her  hands,  and  the  managers  should  rather  aid 
her  in  procuring  it,  than  use  her  labor  for  the  benefit  of  their  own 
treasury. 

Private  nursing  is  undertaken  by  the  Motherhouses  through- 
out the  land.  In  many  cases  it  affords  the  only  means,  by  which 
country  parishes  experience  the  blessings  of  the  female  diaco- 
nate.  In  many  large  country  parishes,  a  deaconess  service  could 
easily  be  established  with  two  Sisters,  conabining  the  parish-work 
with  a  school  for  little  children.  Experience  has  shown,  that  it  is 
not  advisable  to  send  out  less  than  two  Sisters.  The  Lord,  we  are 
told,  sent  out  His  disciples,  two  by  two.  If  the  necessary  good  will 
existed,  mu(3h  might  be  thus  accomplished,  and  the  deaconesses, 
especially  in  country  parishes,  would  prove  a  blessing  to  the  people, 
and  a  great  help  to  the  pastor.  Until  that  time  comes,  and  even  then, 
small  and  remote  villages  would  not  be  greatly  benefited,  and  there- 
fore private  nursing  is  the  one  service  the  Motherhouses  can  render 
such  congregations.  Great  care  must  be  exercised  in  the  sending  out 
of  private  nurses.  It  is  not  an  easy  matter.  In  a  parish  or  institu- 
tion a  Sister  is  of  service  to  many,  while  in  a  private  family  she 
may  be  claimed  for  a  long  time  by  a  single  patient.  If  the  number  of 
ot  Sisters  in  the  Motherhouses  were  larger,  this  would  be  of  no  con- 
sideration, but  at  present  the  matter  is  attended  with  many  difficul- 
ties. Private  nursing  is  not  without  its  peculiar  dangers,  especially 
to  less  experienced  Sisters.  They  are  often  exposed  to  adverse  in- 
fluences, without  having  help  or  advice  within  reach.  But  whether 
the  matter  is  difficult  or  otherwise,  it  does  not  lessen  the  obligation, 


—  122  — 

which  must  he  admitted  to  exist  in  such  cases.  Of  course  the  in- 
dividual instances  must  he  examined  into.  The  eases  of  real  need 
are  those  which  require  help.  The  deaconesses  must  not  consider 
their  own  personal  comfort.  Where  tiie  Motherhouses,  often  at  the 
expense  of  much  trouble  and  great  sacrifices,  practice  private  nurs- 
ing, the  Lord  will  not  fail  to  send  His  blessing.  This  experience 
is  made  in  various  ways,  and  contributes  in  a  large  measure  to  the 
success  of  the  deaconess  work. 

109.  From  the  review  given  above  of  the  deaconess  activity 
in  our  time,  observant  readers  will  gather,  that  familiarity  with 
household  duties  is  everywhere  a  preliminary  condition  of  the  work, 
and  sometimes  these  duties  constitute  the  actual  work.  The  dea- 
coness serves  her  Saviour  and  His  church  in  the  household,  as  well 
as  elsewhere,  and  such  service  is  not  without  its  immediate  spiritual 
side.  The  sister  comes  in  contact  with  all  sorts  of  personalities, 
and,  if  she  serves  in  the  spirit  of  prayer,  may  by  her  example  fur- 
nish a  testimony  of  deeds,  which  will  not  fail  to  reach  the  heart. 
Deaconesses  must  understand  simple  book-keeping.  Much  is  often 
entrusted  to  them,  and  they  must  be  ready  at  all  times,  with  minute 
care,  to  render  an  account  of  their  stewardship. 

It  remains  to  show  how,  closely  linked  with  the  service  which 
the  sisters  render  the  poor  and  needy,  there  is  a  service  of  honor 
and  beauty.  Sisters,  when  they  are  instrumental  in  bringing  chil- 
dren to  baptism,  must  be  able,  in  an  attractive  and  fitting  manner, 
to  prepare  the  christening  dress  and  table.  When  they  have  nursed 
a  sick  person  until  the  end,  they  must  know  what  is  proper  in  the 
care  of  the  dead.  They  must  be  able  to  teach  their  charges,  to 
celebrate  the  christian  festivals.  Especially  will  Christmas  time 
give  them  abundance  of  work.  But  other  festivities  also  have  their 
churchly  and  popular  features,  which  the  deaconess  must  be  able  to 
present  and  explain  to  those  imder  her  care.  Musical  skill,  where 
the  gift  has  been  granted,  belongs  to  the  duties  of  the  service  in 
almost  every  field  of  labor.  Indeed  whatever  helps  to  give  the 
service  a  gracious  and  lovely  form,  has  its  value, — only  womanly 
vanity  must  remain  out  of  the  question. 

Church-embroidery ,  the  adornment  ot  the  sanctuary,  has  become 
a  special  branch  of  work  for  individual  deaconesses.  All  deaco- 
nesses should,  if  possible,  possess  an  appreciation  of  what  is  beauti- 
ful and  appropiate  in  the  House  of  God.  It  is  essential  therefore, 
that  deaconess  houses  be  enabled,  with  loving  care  to  beautify  their 
holy  places,  and  the  order  of  their  worship.  It  is  by  no  means 
optional,  to  do  this  or  to  leave  it  undone.  The  perception  of  what 
is  beautiful  and  suitable  in  a  churchly  sense  is  notably  cultivated, 
when  within  the  Motherhouses  a  work-room  is  established  for 
churchlv  ornamentation,  in  so  far  as  this  lies  within  the  limits  of 
woman's  skill.     Here  the  draperies  for  altar,  pulpit,   font  and  lee- 


—  123  — 

tern  are  made.  A  Motherhouse  has  reason  to  rejoice,  if  it  possesses 
a  sister  with  an  artistic  gift  for  this  work,  who  can  at  the  same 
time  be  spared  for  it.  This  work  also  is  a  service  to  the  Body  of 
our  Lord  ;  and  it  is  an  honor  to  a  Motherhouse  if  it  is  permitted 
thus  to  serve  the  Church.  It  will  prove  a  source  of  pleasure  and 
profit  to  all  the  sisters.  The  preparation  of  commmiion-icafers  is 
also  a  suitable  service  for  the  deaconess  houses.  And  the  ties  which 
are  thus  formed  between  the  houses  which  render  such  service,  and 
the  altars  and  churches  throughout  the  land,  are  not  without  im- 
portance. 


110.  Short  as  has  been  our  sketch  of  the  fields  of  labor  ot 
the  deaconesses,  it  is  sufficient  to  convince  all  who  wish  to  see,  how 
deeply  the  deaconess  work  has  entered  into  the  life  of  the  church. 
In  times  of  public  calamity,  during  epidemics  or  wars,  the  female 
diaconate  has  taken  its  place  in  the  front  ranks  of  those  who  devo- 
ted themselves  to  the  relief  of  the  suffering.  This  will  continue  the 
same  in  the  future,  and  the  power  of  such  testimony  will  never 
fail.  The  danger  cannot  be  wholly  ignored,  that  the  service  ot 
the  deaconesses,  instead  of  remaining  a  service  of  Christ,  a  churchly 
service,  might  deteriorate  into  mere  philanthropy,  as  salt  that 
has  "lost  its  savor."  It  is  the  more  to  be  feared,  in  proportion  as 
the  service  of  the  sisters  is  valued  and  desired  by  the  world.  But 
so  long  as  the  firm  and  intimate  union  between  the  Motherhouse 
and  the  ministry  of  the  pure  Word  and  Sacraments  is  maintained 
and  carefully  cultivated  upon  all  their  fields  of  labor,  the  danger 
will  not  be  great,  or  where  it  exists,  will  be  overcome.  It  is  cer- 
tain that  the  female  diaconate  cannot  stay  the  growing  defection 
from  the  faith  among  protestant  christians.  That  is  not,  and  cannot 
be  its  calling.  But  even  though  itwere  nothing  more  than  the'renewal 
of  a  phase  of  genuine  christian  womanhood  is  it  was  in  the  early 
days  of  the  Church,  it  would  be  a  great  and  prophetic  calling,  similar 
to  that  of  Huldah,  as  described  in  2.  Kings,  22.  It  is  difficult  to  read 
clearly  the  signs  of  the  time  within  the  Church.  Light  and  shade  are 
strangely  mingled,  as  perhaps  at  no  other  time,  and  the  evening 
shadows  are  lengthening.  But  whatever  may  come,  this  is  certain, 
that  on  the  Day  of  the  Lord  it  will  be  asked,  what  place  in  the  life 
of  the  Church  was  held  by  the  works  of  love,  performed  as  an 
evidence  of  faith  towards  Him  who  first  loved  us.  If  God  has 
granted,  that  in  the  tissue  of  our  churchly  present,  the  threads  of 
the  female  diaconate  shall  shine  more  and  more  brightly,  we^will 
gladly  receive  this  as  a  kindly  and  hopeful  sign,  that  the  old  age  of 
the  Church  is  to  be  like  its  youth, — that  Church  which  the  Lord 
knows  as  His  own  and  against  which  the  gates  of  hell  shall  not 
prevail.    It  is  not  for  us  to  ask  what  may  be  God's  thoughts  in  the 


—  124  — 

future,  with  regard  to  the  deaconess  work,  but  to  pray  that  in  the 
deaconesses  and  their  callino;,  the  Woixl  of  Christ  may  through 
grace  be  abundantly  fullfilled  : 

„I  am  the  true  vine,  and  ray  father  is  the  husbandman.  Every 
branch  in  Me  that  bcareth  not  fruit  He  taketh  away  :  and  every 
branch  that  beareth  fruit,  He  purgeth  it,  that  it  may  bring  forth 
more  fruit. 

„I  am  the  vine,  ye  are  the  branches  :  He  that  abideth  in  Me, 
and  I  in  him,  the  same  bringeth  forth  much  fruit  :  for  vnthout  Me 
ye  can  do  nothing/' 


THE  MARY  J.  DREXEL  HOME  AND  PHILADELPHIA 
M0THERHQU2E  OF  DEACONESSES. 


More  than  forty  years  ago  the  first  efforts  were  made  in  the 
Lutheran  Church  in  this  country  to  transplant  the  Deaconesses 
from  Kaiserswerth  to  America.  The  Rev.  W.  A,  Passavant,  pas- 
tor of  the  English  Lutheran  Church  in  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  and  found- 
er of  numerous  charitable  institutions,  hospitals  and  orphans' 
homes  in  Pittsburg,  Rochester,  Pa.,  New  York,  Chicago,  Milwau- 
kee, and  Jacksonville,  called  to  this  country  the  Rev.  Theodore 
Fliedner,  who  arrived  in  the  summer  of  1849  with  four  Kaisers- 
werth Sisters,  who  took  charge  of  the  Pittsburg  Infirmary,  one  of 
whom  is  still  living  at  Pittsburg. 

In  1884  another  colony  of  German  Deaconesses  was  trans- 
planted from  the  Fatherland  to  American  soil.  This  time  the 
movement  originated  with  the  leaders  of  the  German  Hospital  in 
Philadelphia.  Its  President  and  chief  benefactor,  Mr.  John  D. 
Lankenau,  with  his  friend,  Consul  Charles  H.  Meyer,  after 
repeated  attempts  to  induce  Kaiserswerth  or  some  other  pro- 
minent Motherhouse  in  Germany  to  give  up  some  Sisters  to  the 
Hospital,  at  last  succeeded,  through  the  assistance  of  the  late  Rev. 
Ninck  in  Hamburg,  in  bringing  over  an  independent  community 
of  seven  Sisters  from  Iserlohn,  Germany.  They  arrived  on  the  19. 
of  June,  1884,  and  at  once  took  charge  of  the  Hospital  work,  in- 
troducing, as  President  Lankenau  testifies,  "a  more  healthy  system 
of  management,  and  inaugurating  a  complete  renovation  of  the  old 
system  of  nursing."  It  was  not  long  after  the  introduction  of  the 
Sisters  into  the  Hospital  that  Mr.  Lankenau,  and  the  friends  who 
sympathized  and  co-operated  with  him  in  this  cause,  came  to  the 
conviction  that  if  the  work  of  Deaconesses  was  to  take  firm  foot- 
hold among  us  and  become  permanently  established,  steps  should 
be  taken  as  soon  as  possible  toward  founding  a  separate  Mother- 
house,  where  probationers  could  be  received  and  trained,  and  where 
disabled  and  aged  Sisters  could  find  a  home  in  the  evening  of  life. 
This  Motherhouse  was  to  be  separate  from  the  German  Hospital 
and  in  organic  union  with  the  Evangelical  Lutheran  Church,  to 
which  the  Sisters  belonged. 

Mr.  Lankenau  had  for  many  years  matured  a  plan  for  an  old 
people's  home  in  memory  of  his  wife,  Mary  Joanna  Drexel ;  in  the 


—  12G  — 

execution  of  this  plan  the  Motherhoiise  of  Deaconesses  was  to  be 
eonnectod  with  the  Marv  J.  Droxel  Home,  both  instil utions  being 
combined  arcliitecturallv,  in  one  maii-niHcont  bnikliny;  and  boino: 

111  ' 

placed  nndcr  one  government,  a  si)ccial  Board  of  Directors,  in  which 
the  German  Hospital  Board  is  represented  by  three  members  and 
the  General  Council  of  the  Evangelical  Lutiieran  Church  in  North 
America  by  at  least  three  ministers.  On  the  11th  of  November, 
1886,  the  corner-stone  of  this  Mary  J.  Drexel  Home  and  Philadel- 
phia Motherhouse  of  Deaconesses  was  laid,  and  on  the  ()th  of  De- 
cember, 1888,  the  building  was  consecrated  to  the  service  of  the 
Triune  God.  On  the  same  day  Ilev.  August  Cordes,  formerly  as- 
sistant of  Rev.  Ninck  in  Hamburg,  was  installed  as  Rector  of  the 
Motherhouse. 

The  first  Oberin  (Sister  Superior)  Marie  Krueger,  having  died 
in  November  1887,  Wanda  von  Oertzen  succeeded  to  her  place  in 
June  1888.  Rector  Cordes  having  resigned  in  June  1892,  the 
Rev.  Karl  Goedel  of  Weinsheim,  Germany,  was  called  and  on 
July  9th  1893  was  installed  as  pastor  of  the  Mary  J.  Drexel  Home 
and  Motherhouse  of  Deaconesses. 

The  work  of  the  deaconesses  at  present  covers  the  following 
fields  : 

1)  The  German  Hospital  in  Philadelphia  with  about  150  pa- 
tients on  a  daily  average,  50,000  nursing  days  per  year,  and  about 
28,000  visits  in  the  dispensary  during  the  same  time.  Some  25 
Sisters,  including  probationers,  are  on  duty  in  the  Hospital  work. 

2)  The  Children'' s  Hospital,  in  the  western  wing  of  the  Mary 
J.  Drexel  Home,  since  its  opening  in  May  1889  has  nursed  1011 
sick  children.  The  dispensary  was  visited  in  1892 — 93  by  more 
than  5600  little  patients.  Three  Sisters  and  several  associates  have 
charge  of  this  work. 

3)  The  Old  People^ s  Home  on  the  second  and  third  floors  of 
the  West  wing  of  the  Mary  J.  Drexel  Home  which  was  opened  in 
November  1889,  with  room  for  40  inmates,  is  now  filled.  Two 
Sisters  have  charge  of  this  station. 

4)  Parish  Work  has  been  done  thus  far  in  three  German  Lu- 
theran Congregations,  St.  Paul's,  Philadelphia,  Zion's,  Philadelphia, 
and  St.  James',  Altoona,  Pa.  At  present  only  one  Sister  is  en- 
gaged in  this  work,  in  Zion's  Congregation,  Philadelphia. 

5)  In  a  few  instances  Sisters  have  been  sent  out  for  private 
nursing  in  peculiarly  urgent  cases,  but,  owing  to  the  small  number 
of  Deaconesses,  it  has  thus  far  been  impossible  to  engage  regularly 
in  this  work. 

6)  On  the  16th  of  September,  1890,  a  (rirfe' aScAoo^  was  opened 
in  the  fourth  story  of  the  Mary  J,  Drexel  Home.  Through  this 
institution  the  Philadelphia  Motherhouse  of  Deaconesses  has  under- 
taken to  do  its  share  in  the  Christian  training  of  the  future  mothers 


—  127  — 

of  our  nation.  The  school  is  attended  by  some  forty  pupils,  from 
10  to  18  years  of  age,  the  majority  of  whom  are  boarders  in  the 
house.  Their  instruction  and  training  is  in  the  hands  of  most  com- 
petent teachers  under  the  supervision  of  the  pastor,  the  Rev.  Karl 
Goedel.  An  experienced  Deaconess  acts  as  manager  and  directress 
of  the  school. 

7)  The  Day  Nursery  and  Children's  Home  in  Germantovm. 
The  Ladies'  Aid  Society  of  the  Mary  J.  Drexel  Home,  in  October, 
1890,  opened  a  day  nursery  on  Cayuga  Street,  Germantown  with 
two  inmates,  whose  number  afterwards  increased  to  twelve.  This 
institution  has  now  been  changed  into  a  Children's  Foster  Home, 
admitting  children  from  one  to  four  years,  and,  if  possible,  keeping 
them  as  inmates  as  long  as  practicable.  Two  Sisters  are  in  charge 
of  this  work. 

8)  The  Kindergarten.  For  several  years  Kindergarten- work 
was  done  with  the  convalescent  children  of  the  Children's  Hospital. 
This  has  now  been  enlarged  into  a  regular  Kindergarten  and  infant 
school,  receiving  children  from  outside.  The  attendance  has  al- 
ready reached  the  number  of  thirty. 

9)  The  Evening  School.  In  the  fall  of  1892  this  school  was 
opened  for  boys  who  had  formerly  been  inmates  of  the  Children's 
Hospital,  with  ample  provisions  for  their  instruction,  culture  and 
entertainment.  The  school  is  well  attended  and  shows  the  grate- 
ful attachment  of  the  former  patients  to  the  place  where  they  were 
cared  for  in  the  days  of  their  suffering. 

10)  The  Hospital  in  Easton,  Pa.,  a  young  but  rapidly  growing 
institution,  incorporated  in  July  1890  and  under  the  management  of 
a  Board  of  Ladies,  is  in  charge  of  two  of  our  Deaconesses.  During 
the  last  year  1892 — 93  108  patients  were  treated  there. 

11)  The  Old  People's  Home  in  Allegheny,  Pa.  On  September 
10th  1893,  this  institution,  recently  established  by  the  Evangelical 
Lutheran  Joint  Synod  of  Ohio,  was  taken  in  charge  by  two  Sisters 
from  the  Philadelphia  Motherhouse  of  Deaconesses. 

The  Philadelphia  Motherhouse  aims  to  adapt,  as  nearly  as 
possible,  the  principal  features  of  the  Deaconesses'  work  in  Ger- 
many to  this  country.  The  foundation  of  the  whole  work  is  to  be 
unity  in  the  faith  and  love  to  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ.  The  Sisters 
seek  no  earthly  gain,  and  do  their  work  witliout  wages  ;  but  in 
giving  themselves  fully  up  to  this  work,  they  are  assured  that  they 
will  be  well  provided  with  all  the  necessaries  of  life.  They  have  a 
comfortable  home,  enjoy  every  summer  a  vacation  of  three  or  four 
weeks,  which  they  spend  either  in  the  homes  of  their  relatives  or  in 
the  beautiful  seaside  home  which  Mr.  Lankenau  built  for  himself, 
and  to  which  he  invites  the  Sisters  who  are  in  need  of  the  refreshing 
and  invigorating  sea-breezes.  If  disabled  by  sickness  or  old  age, 
the  Motherhouse  is  the  home  of  the  Sister,  so  that  she  enjoys  abso- 


—    12«    — 

Ijute  immunity  from  the  cares  of  this  world,  so  far  as  human  pro- 
vision may  free  any  one  from  them. 

The  Sisters  are  divided  into  full-consecrated  Deaconesses,  and 
Probationers.  The  time  of  service  before  the  consecration  generally 
covers  a  period  of  four  years.  During  this  time  there  is  a  regular 
course  of  instruction  for  the  Sisters,  both  theoretical  and  practical, 
which  is  intended  to  prepare  them,  as  well  as  possible,  for  the 
various  duties  of  their  office.  The  Pastor  of  the  Motherhouse,  who 
must  be  a  clergyman  of  the  I^utheran  Church,  is  the  pastor  of  the 
Sisters.  He  conducts  the  services  in  the  beautiful  chapel  of  the 
home  on  each  Lord's  Day,  and  also  a  daily  Vesper  service  through 
the  week,  in  which  the   inmates  of  the  Home  participate. 

There  are  at  present  in  connection  with  the  Philadelphia 
Motherhouse  38  sisters,  including  jjrobationers  and   five  aspirants. 

The  Motherhouse  of  Deaconesses  in  Philadelphia  has  always 
been  ready  and  willing  to  the  best  of  its  ability  to  assist  the  Deaco- 
ness cause  in  other  places  and  among  other  churches.  In  1887  and 
1888  the  Rev.  E.  A.  Fogelstroem,  Swedish  Lutheran  pastor  in 
Omaha,  sent  five  young  women  to  be  trained  in  Philadelphia  for 
the  Deaconess  Institution  which  he  established  in  Omaha  under  the 
name  Emanuel  Deaconess  Home.  One  of  them,  Sister  Bothilde 
afterwards  also  visited  the  deaconess  institutions  in  Stockholm  and 
Kaiserswerth.  In  April  1891  she  was  consecrated  in  Omaha.  In 
September  1893  there  were  15  young  ladies  in  the  institution  :  5 
Deaconesses,  6  Assistant  sisters,  3  probationers  and  one  aspirant. 
They  work  as  nurses  in  Emanuel  Hospital  and  in  Bethesda  Hos- 
pital, St.  Paul,  Minn.,  also  as  parochial  teachers  in  Swedish  Lu- 
theran Congregations,  thus  representing  a  fair  and  prosperous 
beginning  of  this  great  cause  among  the  Swedish  Luthei-ans  of 
this  country. 

The  General  Synod  of  the  Evangelical  Lutheran  Church  in 
America  also,  through  its  Committee  on  Deaconesses,  has  sent 
several  young  ladies  to  the  Philadelphia  Motherhouse  to  be  trained 
for  the  work. 

The  Deaconess  House  in  Dayton,  Ohio,  which  is  undenomina- 
tional, has  at  present  several  of  its  sisters  in  the  Mary  J.  Drexel 
Home  for  the  purpose  of  giving  them  a  thorough  education  and 
preparation  for  their  service.  This  house  was  established  in  1890 
in  connection  with  the  Cincinnati  Deaconess  House.  But  after- 
wards it  received  its  Sister  Superior  from  Rev.  von  Bodelschwingh, 
Bielefeld,  Germany,  and  is  making  rapid  progress  under  its 
present  management. 

The  Norwegian  Lutherans  have  for  a  number  of  years,  been 
active  and  successful  in  the  Deaconess  work.  At  the  solicitation 
of  the  Norwegians'  Seamens'  Mission  in  Brooklyn,  Sister  Elizabeth 


—  129  — 

Fedde,  M'ho  had  been  a  deaconess  since  1872,  M^as  sent  to  this  conn 
try  in  1888.  Having  begun  the  work  in  Brooklyn  she  was,  in  1888, 
called  to  JVIinneapolis,  to  take  charge  of  the  institution,  which  had 
been  established  there  chiefly  through  the  efforts  of  Rev.  M.  F. 
Gjertzen.  After  a  short  absence  however,  Sister  Elizabeth  had  to 
return  to  Brooklyn,  to  reconstruct  the  work,  which  had  there  been 
commenced.  Now  the  Norwegians  have  in  Brooklyn  a  hospital 
with  accommodations  for  33  patients  and  a  Deaconess  House.  The 
property  is  owned  by  the  Norwegian  Aid  Society  with  Consul  Boers 
as  its  president  Nor  lias  the  Norwegian  Deaconess  work  in  Min- 
neapolis been  less  successful.  It  is  now  in  charge  of  Sister  Inge- 
borg  from  the  Motherhouse  in  Christiania,  Norway.  The  number 
of  sisters  is  twenty,  of  whom  three  are  at  work  in  St.  Lukes'  Hos- 
pital, Grand  Forks,  three  in  the  Orphans'  Home  at  Beloit,  and  three 
in  the  hospital  at  Hillsboro,  N.  D. 


^iUatiSjss 


THBLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


I.  ORIGIN  AND    NATURE    OV  THE    SERVICE    OF  CHRISTIAN 

MERCY 5 

II.  THE  CHURCHLY  OFFICES 9 

III.  THE   DEACONESS   CALLING   ACCORDING    TO   THE   SCRIP- 

TURES   13 

IV.  THE  DEACONESS  OF  THE  EARLY  CHURCH 19 

V.  THE  SPREAD   AND    DECAY    OF   THE  DIACONATE  OF  THE 

EARLY    CHURCH 26 

VI.  THE    RENEWAL    OF    WOMAN'S    CHURCHLY    SERVICE    IN 

THE  ROMISH  CHURCH 33 

VII.  THE    PROTESTANT   RENEWAL   OF   THE   FEMALE   DIACO- 
NATE   47 

VIII.  THE  DEACONESS  MOTHERHOUSES 09 

IX.  THE  SISTERHOODS  OF  DEACONESSES 85 

X.  THE  FIELDS  OF  LABOR  OF  THE  DEACONESSES 105 

APPENDIX 125 


Date  Due 


~%M^^ffsmF 


«*. 


